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ENCYCLOPEDIA AMERICANA.

O&KKCEy AiiciENT. The name of <?r<8-
aa originated in Itahr, and waa prob-
Mj derived fix)m Pelaagian colonies,
Wiy coming fiom Epirus, and calling
theooflelvea Grecians^ nom Gncctif, die
80Q of thdr anceetor, Thessalus, occa-
aoned the application of this name to all
the people who spoke the same lanj^uage
with them. In eaifier times, e. g., m the
time of Homer, Greece had no general
name among the natives. It aftc^ards
leceived the name of HeUaa^ and sdll lat-
er, after the country was conquered by
the Romaitfs the name of ^chidOf under
which Macedonia and Epirus were not
inchided. The Grecian tribes were so
widely di^tersed, that it is difficult to de-
tarmine, with precision, the limits of
Greecty properiy so called. The name
was sooietinies applied only to that coun-
ny which was surrounded on thiee sides
by the Mediterranean sea, was separated
mnn Macedonia by the Oambunian moun-
tains, and contained about 42,000 square
miles ; sometimes it was taken in a wider
seose, including Macedonia and Epirus,
having mount Hiemus and the /Egean
and Ionian seas for its boundaries, and
eomprisuig the islands of these two seas.
Gfeece consists partly of continental,
and partly of insular regions. A chain
of mountains, extending fiiom the Ambre-
dsn gttl^ ID the west, to Thermopylie, on
the east, separated Northern Greece from
Southem. The climate is alternately se-
vere or mild^ as the mountains or vfuleys
predominate, but it is agreeable and
beahfay. People are not unfiequently
found here, whoto age is over 100 yean.
The sofl of the valleys and plains is favor*
able to the growth of the finest tropical
iiwta, while the summits of the High

mountains are covered with the plants of
the polar regions. In Athens, the ther-
mometer very seldom fidls bekiw the
freezinjc point, or rises above 35° Beau-
mur (8§ Fahrenheit). In the islands^ eve-
ry evening, at a paiticukur hour, a gentle
sea breeze sets in, which tempen the heat
of the day. But in the plains of Thessa-
hr, which lie 1200 feet above die level of
the sea, and more especially in the moun-
tains of Arcadia, the winter is as severe
as in Enffland. The fruits of the soil are
as abundant as they are various. Even
where it is not adapted for the purposes of
husbandry, it proauces thyme, marjoram,
and a number of aromatic herba, which
afford a rich pasturage. Greece produces
ei^ht kinds of com and ten kinds of
olives. It is, perhaps, the native countiT
of the grape, particularly of the small
sort, from which the currants of com-
merce are made. Tlie name of these m
a corruption of Corinik, the chief planta-
tion having formeriy been on the isthmus
of this name. There are 40 kinds of Gre-
cian grapes known. The honey of this
country is very famous. (See S^fmeUus,)
Greece produces all the necessaries or
life, and there is no comtiy whose coast
is so well supplied with bays and harbors
(or commerce. The main land is now
divided into Northern Greece, Middle
Greece, Greece Proper, or Hellas, in its
narrower sense, and the Peloj^nnesus
(Morea). I. Northern Greece mcludes,
LThesBaly (q. v.Wnow Jitnna); 2. Epi-
rus (q. V.) (now Albania| ; ^ Macedonia
(now Macedonia, or Filiba-Vilajeti), ac-
counted a part of Greece from the time
of Philip and Alexander, and making a
link in the chain between Greece and
Thrace, of which, in eaiiier times, Mace-

GREECE, ANCIENT.

donia made a oait IL Middle Gteece,
or Hellas (now Liyadia), containa, 1. Acar-
nania, inhabited by a rough and warlike
people, with no remarkable rivers or
mountains; 2. .£tolia (q. v.); 3. Doris,
or Doiis Tetrapolis {fbrmedy Dryopolis);
4. Locris (q. v.), with the pass of Ther-
mopylee; 5. Phocis, watered by the Ce-
phissus, and containing mount Pamassua,
under which lay Delphi (q, t.U d. Boeo*
tia (q. ▼.); 7. Attica (q. v.); 8. Megaris,
witli the city of Megaia, the smallest of
all the Grecian states. HI. The penin-
sula of the Peloponnesus, to which the
isthmus of Corinth led through Megaris,
contained, 1. tlie territory of Corinth
(q. V.J, with the cily of the same name,
callea, in earlier times, Ephyra; 2. the
small territory of Sicyon, with the ancient
city of the flame name; 9. Achaia, an-
ciently called JEgialoBf and, afterwards,
hnioy contained 12 cities on the coast
which stretched along the Corinthian
gulf to the river Melas; 4. Eiis, divided
mto two parts by the river Alpheus^
stretched mm Achaja, south-west, to the
sea-coast; it contained the oelebrmted
cities of Cyllene and Olympia (q. v.);
5u Messenia, with the river Pamisus, ex-
tending from tlie southern part of Elia
along tlie sea to the extremity of the con-
tinent, with the city of Mefisene, and the
tiontier towns of Ithome and Ira ; 6. La*
conia, Laconica, Lacediemon, a moun-
tainous coimtry traversed by the Tayipe-
tus, and watered by the Eurotas, bounded
on three sides by the Measenian, the La*
conian and the Argolic gulfi; Sparta
(q. V,) was the capital ; 7. Argolis (q. v.) ;
8. Arcadia (q. v.jl The islands which
belong to Greece, lie, L in the Ionian sea,
on the west and south of the main land.
1. Corcyra (Corfu ) ; 2. Cephalonia; S, As-
teris; 4. Ithaca (Teaki); 5. Zacynthus
(Zante : Sl Maura is the ancient peninsu-
la of Leucadia, formerly connected with
the mainland of Acamania); 6. Cythera
(Cerigo) ; 7. the group of islands m the
Ai^lic gulf; 8. the island of Pelops, near
the territory of Troezene, and, not far
ofi; Spbieoa, Calauria (Poros); 9. iEgi-
iia; 10. Salamis (Coluri), andf many sur-
rqunding islands; 11. Crete (Candia).
IL In the iEgean sea, now called the
•^rckipela^, on tlie south and east sides of
the main land, lie, 1. Carpathos (Scarpan-
to) ; 2. Rhodes ; 3. Cyprus ; 4. the Cycla-
iles, i. e., Delos, and the surroundmg
islands on the west ; and, 5. the Sporades,
i. e., those scattered over the eastern Ar-
chipelago. To the Cydades belong De-
los (Sdilli), Rheniea, Mieonos^ TeQos

tTine), Andros, Gjraroa, Ceos (Zia), Syros,
Cythnus (Themuai Seriphoe, Siphnos,
Cimolis (Argentiere), Melos (Milo), The-
ra (Santorin), los, where Homer is said to
have been buried, Naxoe (in more ancient
times, Dia), Pares (Paria), &c To the
Sporades belong Cos (Stanchio, Stingo),
Parmacusa, Patmos (Palmo, Palmosa),
Samos, Chios (Sciol with many smaller
surrounding islands, t4eabos (Mitylene), the
surrounding islands called HecaUmmfBoi^
L e., the hmdnd idantU, Tenedos (Bosds-
cha, Adassi), Lemnos (Stalimene), Imbros
(Lembro), Samothrace, Thasos, and, near-
er the Grecian coast, Scyroe and Eubcea
(Negropont). Ancient Macedonia was,
in its mtenor, rough, woody and barren,
and produced wine, oil and fhiit-tre^
only on the coast The same is true of
Epirus. But Thesaaly was a fruitful and
well watered country, and produced the
finest h<Mses. BcBotia was likewise fruit-
ful, and abounded in fine herds of cattle.
The soil of Locris was moderately ffood ;
that of Doris was more fruitful, and that
of Phocis still more so, producing, in
abundance, good wine, fine ofl and niad-
der. The rou||[h mountains of JBtolia
were neither suited to pasturage nor to
agriculture. Acamania, the sea-coast of
Attica, and the mountainous parts of
Megaris, were as litde remarkable for fer-
tility as Achaia. Argolis had a fruitfbl
soil ; and in Laconia, Messenia and Elis,
both Sjgriculture and pasturage flourisJied.
Arcadia was a mountainous country, well
adapted for the raising of flocks. Tlie
Grecian islands lie under a fortunate sky,
and are most of them veir rich in wine
and in wild and cultivated fruits.*

* See Hellas^ or a Geemphicri and Antiqua-
rian Account or Ancient woece and ita Colonies,
with a View of the Modern Dbcoveriei made in
that CoanUy, by F. K. G, Kcwe, pmfeMor
(Leipsic, 18ShK two volumes, with an Atlas. A
Jounial of a Tour through Greece and Albania
(Bcrfin, 18^)* contains very satisfactory accounts
of Ancient Greece^ particularly in a military
point of view. Gell and Dodwell have iKiitten
on the ffiofpvpby, topography and history of
Greece m ancient and mcNlem times, wiui the
writings of the ancients in their hanai. Dod-
well's companion. Pomardi, has given lome ad-
J informatMH (Rome^ 1830), Chandler,

ditional

Sinart, ReveU, have given accurate descriptions
of the remains of the architecture and sculpture
of the ancient Greeks. Spohn and Wheeler, Le
Chevalier, Choiseul-Goumer, and Clark and
Turner have ftmished accurate accounts of parts
of the country previously little known. See also
Homer'i Picture of Grecian Antiquities, or an
Account of tlie most celebrated Places and
most important Worics of Ail of Ancient
Greece, (Zurich, 18S4, et seq. ). The Journals of
Hughes, Holland, Vaudoocourt, Leake, Dougias,
Castellan, imd also Gait's Letters from the Le-

GREECE, ANCIEBfT, HISTORY OF.

Tkt IStien ^ Greece is diTicled into
tbfee priiiGiparperiods--th0 periods of its
liK, in power, and its fiilL The fint ex-
tends from tbe origin of the peoo^ about
1800 yeaiB B. C^ to Lycumifl^ 875 yean
B. C; the second eoctends from tliat time
to tbe cQoqueet of Greece by the Roman%
146B.C.; the third ahowB us the Greeks
SB a cooquered people, con9taBtly on the
decline, until at length, about A. D. 300, the
old Grecian states were swallowed up in
tbe Byzantine empire. According to trap
ditiooy the Pelasgi, under Inachua, were
the fint people who wandered into
Greece. Tbey dwelt in caves in the
eanli, supporting themselves on wild
froits, ana eating the flesh of their con-
quef«d eoemies, uotil Phoroneus, who is
called king of ArgoB^ began to introduce
dvifizalicm amon^ them. Pelasp^ in
Arcadia, and iE^akus in Achaia, en-
deavoied at the same time to civilize their
savaee subjects. The Cyclopean waUs
are raeir woifc. (See Cydopeon Works,)
SmaD kingdoms arose ; e. g^ Sparta ana
Athiraia. SfHne barbarous tribes received
names fit>m the three hrotheis, Achseua,
Pebagus and Pjrthius, who led colonies
from Aicadia to Tbessaly, and also from
Thessalus and Gnecus (the sons of Pelas-
raJL and ocherBL Deucialion's flood, 1514
B. C., and the emigration of a new peo-
ple from Asa, the Hellenes, produced great
changes. The Hellenes spread them-
selves over Greece, and drove out the Pe-
hggiy or mingled with them. Their name
became the general name of the Greeks.
Greece now raised itself from its savage
Mate, and improved stiU more rapidly
after the anivid of some PhoBnician and
Egyptian colonies. About 60 years after
ibe flood of Deucalion, Cadmus, the PIxb-
nieian, settled in Thebes, and introduced a
knowledge of the alphabet. Ceres, frvMn
Sioly, and Triptotomus, from Eleusis,
tangiit the nation agriculture, and Bac-

vut, cooiaiD food oMrvations on tbe maimen
tnd dmooM or Modern Greeee, and the islands
oftke Archipelago. Tbe principal work, howev-
er, is that or Fooqaeville (fonnerly French con-
ni-geoera} near Ali Pacha) Vou. dam la Grice
(Paris, 1890, six volumes). Iken's HMemon,
&e.. coBtaias informatioB on the history of the
cohivatkNi of the modem Greeks. Gell, in his
Nanrative of a Joumey in the Morea (London,
18S3}, maintains that the Greeks do not j)os<
•ess socfa ciMvadon as to be worthy of fieeaom,

The cositmy opinioD is maintaineo by Ed. Bla-
qsMre, in fais Report on the present finate of the
Seek CoiiMerition,dMS. (London, mS). P.O.
BraBMled's Voyages dans la Ordee accompagnSs
4e Reeherekes AreMdogiquea (Paris, 1826, wiUi
eqpavii^), is a ▼aloaSle work. (For a hst of
««iks oo the Greek revolution, see the close of
tkatdimaionqfihis artieU, intohichii U treated.)

chus planted tbe Tine. The Egyptian
fUgitiye Danaus came to Aigos, and Oe-
crops to Attica. Now beguk the heroic
age, to which Hwcules, Jason, Pirithous
and Theseus belong, and that of the old
bards and sages, as Thamyris, Atnpbion,
Ori^us^ Linus, Musasus, Chiron and
many othera. A wariike spirit filled the.
whole nation, so that every quarrel called
all the heroes of Greece to arms, as, £ot
instance, the war against Thebes, and the
Trojan war, 1300 years B. C^ which lat-
ter forms one of the principal epochs in
the history of Greece. This war depriv-
ed many kingdoms of their princes, and
product a general confluaon, of which
the Heraclida took advantage, 80 yean
after the destruction of Troy, to possess
themselves of the Peloponnesus. They
drove out the lonians and Achfleans, who
took refuge in Attica, But, not finding
here sufficient room, Neleus (1044) led an
Ionian colony to Asia Minor, where a
colony of ifioliaas, fit>m the Peloponne-
sus, had already settled, and was followed,
80 yean after, by a colony lof Dorians.
In other states republics were founded,
viz., in Phocia, in Thebes, and in die
Asiatic colonies, and at length also in
Athens and many other places ; so that, for
the next 400 years, all the southern pMart
of Greece was for die most part oocupied
by republics. Their pcospexity and the
fineness of the climate, in the mean time,
made the Asiatic colonies the mother of
the arts and of learning. They gave
birth to the songs of Homer and HeiBod.
There commerce, navigation and law
flourished. Greisce, however, sdll retun-
ed its ancient siinpUcity of manners, and
was unaoquainted with Inxury. If the
population of any state became too nu-
merous, colonies were sent out ; for exam-
ple, ih die ^th and 8tli centuries, the pow-
erful colonies of Rbegium, Syracuse, Sy-
baris, Crotona, Tarentum, Gela, Locris
and Messena wen planted in Sicily and
the southern part or Italy. (See MagtM
Orada.) The small independent states of
Greece needed a common bond of union.
This bond was foimd in the teniple of
Delphi, the Amphictyonic cotmcil, and the
solemn games, amon^ which the Olym-
pic were the most distinguished, the in-
stitution, or rather revival of which, 776
B. C, fomished tbe Greeks with a chron-
ological era. (See JEJpoc^) From this
time, Athens and Sparta be^ to surpass
the other states of Greece m power and
importance. At the time of the Persian
war, Greece had already made important
advances in cirilizatioiu Beades the art

GREECE, ANCIENT, HISTORY OF.

of poetry, we find that jpfailoeophj began
to be cultivited 600 B. C., and even ear^
licr in Ionia and Lower Italy than in
Greece Proper. Statuary and painting
were in a flourisbing condition. The
important colonies of Maesilia (MarKjlks),
in Gaul, and Agrigentum, in Sicily, were
founded. Athena was continuaUr ex-
tending her commerce, and eatabfighed
imporumt commercial posts in Thrace.
In Asia Minor, the Grecian colonies were
broueht under the dominion of the Lyd-
ian Croesus, and soon after under that of
Cyrus. Greece itself was threatened
with a amilar ftte by the Perrian kinp
Darius and Xenes. Then the heroic
spirit of the fiee G^reeks showed itself in
ilB matest brilhancy. Athens and Spar-
ta umost alone withstood the vast armies
of the Penian, and the battles of Mara-
thon, Theimopylffi and Platiea, as well as
the sea-fights at Artemisium, Salamis and
Mycale, taught the PersianB that the
Greeks were not to be subdued by theoL
Athens now exceeded all the other states
in ^riendor and in power. The suprema-
cy which Sparta had hitherto maintained,
doTolved on this city, whose commander,
Cimou, compelled the Persians to ac-
knowledge tne independence of Asia
Minor. Athens was abo the centre of
the arts and sciences. The Peloponne-
sian war now broke out, Sparta being no
longer able to endure tlie overbeuing
pride of Athens. This war dcYBstated
Greece, and enslaved Athens, until Thras-
ybulus again restored its freedom; and,
for a short time, Sparta was compelled, in
her mm, to bend befere the Theban he-
roes Epominondas and Pelopidas. In
spite of these distuibances, poets, philoso-
phers, artists and statesmen, continued to
arise, commerce flourished, and manners
and customs were carried to tlie highest
degree of refinement But that unhappy
period had now arrived, when the GreeKs,
ceasing to be free, ceased to advance in
civilizadon. A kingdom, formed by con-
quest, had grown up on the north of
Greece, the ruler of which, Philip, united
courage with cunning. The dissensions
which prevailed among the different
states, afforded him an opportunitv to exe-
eute his ambitious plans, and the bottle of
Cheeronea, 338 B. C., gave Macedonia the
command of all Greece. In vain did the
subjugated states hope to become free after
bis death. Tha destruction of Thebes
was sufficient to subject all Greece to
the younjp Alexander. This prince, as
generalisamio of the Greeks, gained the
most ^lendid victories over the Persians.

An attempt to liberate Greece, oecosiQlied
by a false report of his death, was finstrat-
ed by Antipater. The Lamian war, af-
ter the death of Alexander, was equaUy
unsuccessful. Greece vras now fittfe bet-
ter than a Macedonian province. Luxoiy
had enervated the ancient coinage and
energy of the nation. At length, most
of the states of Southern Greece, Sparta
and iEiolia excepted, concluded the
Achaean league, for the maintenance of
their freedom against the Macedonians.
A dispute having arisen between this
league and Sparta, the latter appfied to
Macedonia for help, and was victorious.
But this friendship was soon &tal, fbr it
involved Greece m the contest between
Philip and flie Romans, who, at first, in-
deed, restored fineedom to the Grecian
states, while they changed .fitofia, and
soon after Macedonia, into Roman prov-
inces ; but they afterwards began to ex-
cite dissensions in the Achnan league,
interfered in the quarrels of the Grraka,
and finally compeUed them to take up
arms to maintain theur fivedom. So un-
equal a contest could not k»ig remain un-
decided ; the capture of Corinth, 146
B. C, placed the Greeks in the power of
the Romans. During the whole period
which elapsed between the batOe of
Chnronea and the destruction of Corinth
by the Romans, the arts and sciMices
flourished among the Greeks ; indeed, the
ffolden age of the arts was in the time of
Alexander. The Grecian colonies were
yet in a more flourishing condition than
the mother countiy ; especially Alexan-
dria, in Egypt, became the seat of learn-
ing. As they, also, in proceas of time,
fell under the dominion of the Romans,
they became, like their mother oountnr,
the insuructers of their conqueron. In
the time of Augustus, the Greeks \o&i
even the shadow of tlieir former fireedom,
and ceased to be an independent people,
although their language, manners, cus-
toms, ieaming, aits and taste spread over
the whole Roman empve. llie charac-
ter of the nation was now sunk so low,
that the Romans esteemed a Greek as the
most worthless of creatures. Asiatic lux-
ury had wholly corrupted them; their an-
cient love of freedom and independence
was extinguished; and a mean servility
was substituted in its place. At the be-
ginning of the fourth century, the nation
scarcefy showed a trace of the noble
characteristics of then* fiithers. The bar-
barians soon after began their ruinous iii-
curaioiis into Greece^— Besides the well
known works on the hisloiy of Greece,

GREBCX» ANCIENT, HIOTORY OF.

bj VEnfyrdj CKUies, BartMletiiy ( Anaehar-
■sl ftc^ we would mentkm ClintoD^
JUi BdUmei (Ozfoi^ I8B41 on Impor-
tsnt woik on the political and Memy eiiro-
noloiry of Greece, from the 55th to the
ia4£^01ymplad ; and Waehnutfa's jHU-
Um$ekt AUeMimtkmtk 1 to^ Halle,
1836); ako Heeien's PoliMa of ADcient
Greece (tnnBlated, Boeton, 1834).— The
prineipal traits in the charaetor of the an-
eie&t Oroe i M , were ampllcitj and gran-
deiir. The Greek waa hia own inatnict-
er, and if he learned any thinf from oth-
en, he did it with freedom and independ-
ence. Natnre waa hia mat mode), and
in hia nati?e land, ahe diaplayed henelf
in aM her charms The uncivilized
Greek was manly and proud, active and
emerpriainff, vioieDt both in his hate
and in his love. He esteemed antf exer-
cised hospitality towards mxtiDgm and
countiTmen. These features or the Gre-
cian chancter had an important influence
on the religion, politicB, mannera and phi-
losophy of the nation. The gods of
Greece were not, like thosa of Asia, sur«
rounded by a holv obacurity ; they were
human in their nabs and virtues, but
were placed far above mortals. They
kepc up an interoourse with men ; good
and evil came from their hands ; all poys-
ical and moral endowments were their
inft. The moral system of the earliest
Greeks taught them to honor the gods
by an exact observance of customs ; to
hold the ri^ls of hospitality sacred, and
even to spare murderers, if thev fled to the
sanctuaries of the gods for renige. Cun-
ning and revenge were allowed to be
pramed 8j||ainst enemies. No law en«
forced continence. The power of the
frther, of the husband or the brother,
akHie suacded the honor of the female
sex, who therefore lived in continual de-
peodenoa. The loss of virtue was se-
verdy punished, but the seducer brouffht
hia cifls and ofllnngsto the gods, as if his
oonduct had been guiltless. The securi-
ty of domestic life rested entirely on the
master of the fiunify. From these char-
aetenstie trailB of the earliest Greeks,
erigimited, in the sequel, the peculiarities
of their religious notions, their love of
freedom and action, their taste for the
beautiful and the grttid, and the simpiici-
tv of th^ manners. The reli|pon of the
&eeks was not so much mingled with
superatition as that of the Romans ; thus,
for example, they were unacquainted with
the piactice of augury. The Greek was
inchned lo festivity, even in religion, and
served die gods leas in spirit than in out-

ward ceremonies. His religion had little
influence on his monls, his befie^ and
the government of his thoughts. All it
reouiredwasa belief in the gods, and in
a futiffs existenoe ; a fieedom from mas
oimes^ and an observMiee of prescnbed
rites. The amplicity of their manneit,
and some obscure notions of a supreme
God, who hated and punished evil, loved
and rewarded good, served, at first, to
nBaintainjSood morals and piety amoiig
them. These notions were afte rw a wii
exalted and systematized by poetry and
philosophy, and the improvement spread
from the cultivated classes through the
great mass of the people. In the most
enlightened period of Greece, clearer
ideas of the unity of the deity, of his om-
niscienoa^ his omnipresence, ms holiness^
his goodness, his justice, and of the ne«
oesBity of worshipping him by virtue and
purity of heart, preyed. The moral
system of some individuals among the
Greeks vres equally pbre. The precepla
of morality were dehvered at first in sen-
tentious maxims ; for example, the sajrings
of the seven wise men. Anerwards, Soc
rates and his cDsciples arBfle,and promul-
gated their pure doctrines. The love of
freedom among the Greeks sprang from
their good fbrtune, in having hved so iSti^.«
without oppresrion or frar of other na-
tions, and mmi their natural vivacinr of
spirit. It was this which made small ar^
mies invincible^jind which caused Lycur-
gus, Solon and Timoleon to refuse crowns^
Their freedom was the work of nature,
and the consequence of their original pa-
triarchal mods of life. The fint kmgs
were considered as frthers of fiunilies, to
whom obedience was willingly paid, in
return for protection and favon. Impor-
tant afiairs were decided by the assemblies
of the people. Each man was master in
his own house, and in eariy times no tax-
es were paid. But as the kings strove
continual^ to extend their powers, the^
were ultimately compelled to resign theif
dignities, and nee states arose, with forms
of government inclining more or less to
ariatocracy or democracy, or composed of
a union m the two ; the citiaMus were at-
tached to a government which was ad-
ministered under the direction of wise
hiwB, and not of arbitrary power. It was
this noble love for a free country, which
prompted Leonidas to say to the kmff of
Fenta, that he would rather die than hold
a deflpotic sway over Greece. It vinas this
which Inspired Solon, Themistoclee, De-
mosthenes and Phoeion, when, in spite o^
the mgratitude of their countiymen, they

GREECE, ANCIENT, HISTORY OF-OREEK LANGUAGE.

cho0e to serrethe stale and the bws, rath-
er than their o^vn intereslB. The cultiva-
tion of their fruitful country, which, by
tfie industiy of the inhabitants, afforded
nourishment to eeveral millions, and the
wealth of their colonies, iHX>ye the actiyity
of ttke Greeks. Commerce, navigation
and manufactures flourished on all sides ;
knowledge of every sort was accumulat-
ed ; the spirit of invention was busily at
work ; the Greeks learned to estimate the
pleasures of sociew, but they also leained
to love luxuiy. From these sources of
activity sprang also a love of great ac-
tions and great enterprises, so many in-
stances of which are furnished by Gre-
cian history. Another striking trait of the
Grecian diameter, was a love of the beau-
tiful, both physical and inteUecnial. This
sense of the beautifiil, awakened and de-
veloped by nature, created fbr itself an
ideal of beauty, which served them, and
has been transmitted to us, as a criterion
for every work of art. A noble simplici-
ty pervades eveiy thing which comes fiom
them. It is this which has made Uie Greeks
the instructers of all ages and nations.

Greek Lanfvage and WriUng. The
languajfe, which we call Greefc, was not
the^pnmitive language of Greece, for
Greece was originaUy inhabited by the
Pelas^ Their tanffuace was already ex-
tinct m the time cf Herodotus, who as-
sarts that it was different from the Heile-
nie, and adds, that it is probable that the
Hellenes have retained ueir original lan-
guage (I. 57). But on the questicm
^ence it originated, there is a divereity
of opinion ; for some derive it from the
Pernan, others fiom the Scythian — two
opinions, which are not, perhaps, incom-
patible with each other. Out of Greece,
It was spoken in a gieat part of Asia Mi-
nor, of the south of Italy and Sicily, and
in other regions which were setded by
Grecian colonic From the great num-
ber of Hellenio tribes of the same race, it
was to be expected that there would be
different dialects, the knowledge of which
is the more necessary for booming ac-
cuiainted vrith the Ghreek language, since
the writers of this nation have transmitted
the peculiarities of the different dialects
in the use of single letteis, words, foims,
terminations and expressions, and that not
merely to characterize more paiticulariy
an individual represented as speaking,
but even when they speak in their ovni
peraon. It is customary to distinguish
three leading dialects, according to the
three leadiiur branches of the Gredcs, the
iEolic, the Doric, and the Ionic, to which

was afberwards added the mixed Attic di-
alect ; besides these, Aere are several
secondary dialects. The four leadinr di-
alects may be reduced to two, the Helle-
nic-Doric and the Ionic- Attic The for-
mer was the oldest \ in fact, Doric was
generally used to signify what was an-
cient. The oldest Doric style is display-
ed in the iEolic dialect, fiom which the
Latin language is derived. The Done
was hard and harsh ; the Ionic was die
softest The iEolic was spoken on the
north of the Isthmus (excepting in Mesa-
ra, Attica and Doris), m the iEolian colo-
nies of Asia Minor, and on some of the
northern islands of the .£gean sea. The
Doric was spoken in the Peloponnesus, in
the Doric Tetrapolis, in the Doric colo-
nies of Asia Minor, of Lower Ital^ (Taien-
tum), of Sicily (Syracuse, Agngentum),
and most purely by the Messenians ; the
Ionic in the Ionian colonies of Asia Mi-
nor, and on the islands of the Archipeki-
00 ; and the Attic in Atdca. In eacn of
these dialects, there are celebrated au-
thors. To the Ionic dialect belong, in
pan, the worics of the oldest poets, Ho-
mer, Hesiod, Theognis^ etc ; it is found
mue in some prose virritera, eqiecially
Herodotus and Hippocrates ; the poems
of Pindar, Theocntus, Bion and Mos-
chus. Litde Doric prose remains, and
that is mostl]r on mathematical or philo-
sophical suqects. In .£olic, we have
fragments of Alcseus and Sappho. After
Athens had obtained the supremacy of
Greece, and rendered itself the centre of
all literaiy cultivaticm, the masterpieces
of iEschylus, Sophocles, Euripides, Aris-
tophanes, Thucydides, Xenopfaon, Plato,
Isocrates, Demosthenes, etc., made the
Attic the common dialect of literature.
Grammarians afterwards distinguished
the genuine Attic, as it exists in those
masters, fiom the Attic of common life,
callinff the latter the common Oreek or Hd-
lemc liuiled, and even the later Attic wri-
ters, posterior to the golden age of tlie lit-
erature, HeOeneg or common Gredts, In
this latter class are Aristode, Theophns-
tus, ApoUodorus, Polybius, Plutarcn and
others, many of whom, however, wrote
genuine Attic, as Ludan, JEHma and Ar-
rian. Except the dramatistB, the poets
by no means confined themselves to the
Attic ; the dramatists themselves assumed
the Doric, to a certain degree, in their
choruses, for the sake of giving them ad-
didonal solemnity, because these belonged
to the oldest litui^ of the Greeks ; and
the other poets retained the Homeric style.
It cannot be denied, that the Cheeks were

GREEK LANOCAOE-^mCfiK LTTEllATURE.

I beOBT •equaioiMl with thnr diflep-
CDC dialectB thiiii aome moderiM^ Uie
OeaomM^ for iofltuce, are with theim.
ms may, perhaps^ hanre beeiiv in a gnat
depee> the eifeet of the univeraal popu-
hnty of Homer, the uae of a rehgious
ritiial, and thegreat mutual intercourBe of
the natioii. But, probahly, the dialects
wen not, in die eaiiieat timea, ao diatinct
fiom each other aa they aftowarda be-
caoie; and on this hypothesia we muat
eiqphin the pecuUttitiea of the §tyle of
Homer and Heaiod. ^In Homer and
Haaod," aaya Mathiil, *^ forma and ex-
pnaaiona oceur, which grammaiiana pro-
nomiee JEolio, Doric, Attic, or the pe-
oiliaritiea of a local dialect But tliey
could haidly have been auch at the time
of theae poett^ who would have aa little
aOowed tfaemeelTea to employ auch a
naxtwe^ as a German poet would pennit
himaelf to ndngle together Lower Saxon
and High German provincialisms. The
kagoage of Homer seems rather to have
been the language of the lonians of that
time. Of the forms common io Homer,
an did not remain in the Ionic dialect,
but aame subsisted in the ifiolic-Dorio
only, othflBB merely in the Attic llie
gnmmariana call that Attic, iEoiic, Doric,
eic, in Homer, which was so at ^eir
time." The period when these changes
teok ]dace in the leading dialects cannot
be determined. It follows from all this,
that, to have a thorough knowledge of the
Greek language, we must follow out, hia-
toricaliy, £e coune of its formation, tak-
ing no partial grammar as our foundation,
but extending our view over all the variea
fbrms of the dialects-^a labor which this
language^ ao rich in classic models of ev-
enr kind, and therefore so perfect, so flex-
iUb, ao expreasive, so sweet in its sound,
SDharmoniouB in its movement, and so
philosophical in its grammatical forms
and wfole atructure, jiierits, and richly re-
wardsL At what time this language finit
began to be expreased in writing, has long
been a subject of doubt According to
the general opinion, Cadmus, the PhcBiii-
oan, introduced the alphabet into Greece.
His alphabet conaiated of but 16 lettera ;
four (e 1 « x) are aaid to have been in-
fented by Palamedes, in the Trojan wan
and four more (z h t a) by Simouides of
CeoB, That the eight lettera mentioned,
are more modem than the othen, is ceiv
tarn, partly ftom historical accounts,
paidy mm the moat ancient inscriptions.
Aa the loniana &;st adopted theae lettera,
and the Atheniana reomved them from
tfaem^ the alphabet vrith 34 lettera ia called

the Mamt. The flgurea of the oldeat
Phoenician and Greek lettera difier veiy
much fitmi the modem Hebrew and
Greek lettera. There have not been want*
ing penon^ however, who aaaeit that the
an of writing waa praetiaed among the
Pelaagi before the thne of Cadmua. Thia
opinion, not unknown to the ancients, but
corroborated by no sin|^ author of au-
thority, has not fiiiled to meet with advo-
eatea in modem timea. Othen, on the
contraiy, have appeared, who place the
origui of the an (^ writing in Greece
much later. The flrat who attracted at-
tention to this point, waa Wood, in hia
Eeaay on the origmal Geniua of Homer.
It is, at all events, of great importance, for
forming a proper judgment o£ Homer,
and deciding rei^iecting Ante-Homeric
poetiy and literature, to aacertain whether
the an of writiiur waa or waa not Imown
in the time of Homer. Wood'a opinion
ia, that we may place the time when the
uae of the alphabet became common in
Greece, and the beginning of proae wri-
ting, in about the same period, 554 beftse
Cbnat, and about aa long after Homer.
In Homer's time, all knowledge, religion
and laws were preaerved by memoiy
alone, and for that reason were put in
verse, till proae was introduced with the
an of wnting. The aii|;ument drawn
from several ancient inacnptiona on tem-
plea, Wolf has deprived of all its force:
m his ProUgomena to Homer, he haa con-
verted the qoeedon with more pre^akm
into two : — 1. When did the Greeks be-
come acquainted with the an of writing ?
2. When was it common among them ?
In solving the latter question, it must be
ascertained when convenient materials
for writinff became common, and in what
century the writing of books ^vas intro-
duced among the Greeka. Wolf proves
not only that Homer committed to writ-
ing nothing which he sung, the skins of
anunab not having been uaed for writing
till afler him, nor E^ptian papyrus till the
time of Psammeticua, but that hia veraes
were never committed to writing till the
middle of the wxth century before Christ
It remains to remarii:, that the Greeks
originally wrote their lines fix>m right, to
left, then baustrophedon (see Bout^ropht'
don\ and finally m>m lefl to rif^t

UTuk lAUnAwrt. The orisin of Greek
literature, that is, of the inteUectual cul-
tivatiou of the Greeks by written woriu,
is lost in an almost imY)enetrable obscurity.
Though there existed in Greece, in earlier
timea, no actual literature, there was by
no means a want of what we may, not

GREEK LITERATUBK

V, call Utarary cuUivadon^ if we
free oureelveB finom the prejudice, that the
piillAHiiim of humanltf consists solely
in written alphabetical characters. The
Jint period ot Qndtoi cultivation, which
extends to the invasion of the Peloponne-
sus by the HeradidflB and Dorians, and the
ffreat changes produced by it^ consequent-
^ to 80 years after the Trojan war, and
which we may designate by the name of
the Ante-Homarie period^ was indeed utter-
ly destitute of literature ; but it may be
questioned whether it was also destitute
of all that culture, which we are accua-
tomed to call Uiamv. The fables which
are told of the intellectual achievements
of this period, have a certain bans of
truth. Among the promoters of literary
cultivation, in this tune, we must distin-
guish three classea— 1. Those of whom
we have no writings, but who are men-
tioned as inventors of arts, poets and
saffes: Amphion, Demodocus, Melampus,
Oien,Phemius and Prometheus. 2. Those
to whom are falselv attributed works no
lon^r extant: Abaris, Aristeas, Chiron,
Epmienides, Eumolpus, Corinnus, Linus
and Palamedes. 3. Those to whom writ-
ings yet extant, which, however, were rao-
ductions of later times, are attributed : jDa-
res, Dictys, HorapoUo, Musesus, Orpheus,
and the authors of the Sibylline oracles.
This is not the place to inquire whether
any and how much of these writings is
genuine. It is enough, that the idea of
such a forgeiy proves the existence of ear-
lier productions. And how could the
next period have been what it was, vrith-
out previous preparation ? If we may thus
infer what must have been, in order that
the succeeding period should be what it
was, we leani, also, from the various tradi-
tions of the Ante-Homeric period, that
there existed in it institutions which,
through the means of religion, poetry,
oracles and mysteries, had no small influ-
ence on the civilization of the nation and
the promotion of culture ; for the most
part, indeed, in Oriental forms, and perhi^
of Oriental origin ; and that these institu-
tions, generally of a priestly character, ob-
tained principally in the uortliem parts
of Greece, Thrace and Macedonia. We
must here remark, that intellectual cultiva-
tion did not prosper at once in Greece, nor
displav itself simultaneously among all
tlie tribes ; that the Greeks became Greeks
only in the process of time, and some
tribes mode more rapid progress than
others. About 80 years after the Trojan
war, new commotions and a new migra-
tion began within the borders of Greece.

A portion of the mhahitenta emigxaied
from the mother countiy to the jsJands
and to Asia Minor. This change was in
the highest degree fkvorable to Grecian
genius ; ft>r the new setdements, abound-
ing in harbors, and destined by nature for
commerce and industry, affi)rdkMi them not
only a more tranquil life, but also a wider
field for refinement, and j^ve rise to new
modes of life. The ancients ascribed to
the colonies in Ionia and Asia Minor the
character of luxury and voluptuousness.
The blue sea, the pure sky, the balmy air,
the beautiful prospects, the finest miits
and most delicious vegetables in abun-
dance, all the requisites of luxuiy, here
united to nourish a soft sensuality. Poet-
ly and phik)sophy, painting and statuary,
here attained their highest perfection ; but
great and heroic deeds were ofiener cele-
brated than perfoimed. Near the scene
of the first gl]and national enterprise of the
Greeks — theTrojan war-«it was not strange
that the interest it excited should be live-
ly, and that it should take a powerful hold
of the imagination. Poetiy thus found
a subject, in the treatment of which it
necessarily assumed a character entirely
distinct from that of the former period.
Among all nations, heroic poetry has flour-
ished with the spirit of heroism. The he-
roes were here lollowed by the bards, and
thus the epopee was fonned. We there-
fore call this second period the mc age
of the Gre^LS. The minstrel (<U(^) now
i^>pearB separated from tlte priest, but
highly honored, particulariy because the
memory of the heroes lived in his verse ;
and poetiy was the guardian of all the
knowledge of preceding times, so ]on|r as
traditions were not committed to writmg.
From its very nature, the epopee must ho
historical, in an enlarged sense. Under
such circumstances^ it is not strange that
regular schools for poets were established ;
for the imagination of the first poet fired
the imagination of others, and it was then,
perhaps, believed that poetiy must be
leameid like other arts — a belief to which
the schools for priests contributed not
a little, on which the schools for min-
strels were probably modelled. But they
were minstrels in the strictest sense, for
their traditions were sung, and the poet
accomiwnied his verses on a stringed in-
strument. On every important occasion,
minstrels were present, who were regard-
ed as standing under the immediate influ-
ence of the ^8, especially of the muses,
vdio were acquainted with the present, the
past and the future. The minstrel, with the
seer, thus stood at the head of men. But,

GREEK LITERATUIUeL

many moMCrds which this age
ly po a a ofl B o d, Homer alone haa
Vr e have from him two gnat
epic poema^ the Died and Odyasey, with
several hymns and epigrema. Qoe mock
heroic poem, the BatraiiAamjfomadty ( the
Baotle of the FrD§^ and Miee), ia ascrib-
ed to him. From him an Ionian achool of
ininBtielB takes its name — the Ameruia —
who pvobaUy constiaited, atfint,at Chios^
a diituict ftmily of rhapaodisia, and who
preaenred the old Homeric and epic atyk),
the nirit and tone of the Homeric vene.
MtM^ that 19 attribmed to Homer, may
zeaaonabfy be aaeigned to them. The
aame may be the case with the epic Cy-
cluBy abo ascribed to Hcnner : whicn brings
OS to the Cyclic poeta, who begui, how-
efer, to deioate materially from me Ionian
epofl^ thebjatofical element predominating
more and more over the poetical. By Qf-
dua^ we here undentaDa the whole cir-
cle of tiaditiona and ftblea, and not mere-
ly the erenta of the Trojan war. Cyclic
poeny comprehended the whole compaaa
of mythology ; and we may, therefine, di-
vide It into, 1. a coamcMKonical, % a genea*
kwica], and 3L a heroic Uyclus ; in the htter
oiwhMh there are two separate periods ;
L of tibe heroes before, and 9, of those af-
ter, the eipedidon of me AiwHieirta. To
the fintt dMB bdong the battiesof the Ti-
tons and giants; to the second, the theog-
onies and herogoniee. To the ftnt period
of the tlurd class belong the Eun^a, sev-
eral Hendeia and Ihonyaiacs, several
ThebaidB, Argonautics, Thesdds, Dana-
ids^ AraaBODica, etc In the second peri-
od, die poelnr generally related to the
Trojan war. To thia bek>nged the Nosloi,
wfaAch treated of the return of the heroes
from IVoy. The eariieat of these Cyctio
poelB apfwared about the time of the first
Oljnmpiad. A hwtory of the gradual for-
mation of their poetnr cannot be given,
beeauae we have only very general ac-
oounta reapeeting them. But what we do
know justifies us in oondudinff that be-
tween tfaeae hiatoric poets and me Ionian
achool of minstrelsy, somethm^ interven-
ed, makings as it were, the trausition. And
weactnally find thia in the BflBolum-.^wre-
asschcM>l, wlueh arose in European Greece
probably about 890 B. C. It derived its
aame firm Ascra inBoeotia, the residence
of Heaiod, who stood at its head, and by
whom poetiy was probaUv conducted
back again fimn Aaia Minor (for he origi-
nated from Cume in iEoha) to Greece,
ffia woika, alao, were at firrt preaenred bv
riiapMNiiala. They were not arranged tiu
skier period, when they were augmented

by foreign additioos ; so that, in their prea-
ent form, their authenticity is aa doubtfiil
aa that of the poema ascribed to Homer.
(See HuM.) Of the sixteen works attrib-
uted to him, there have come down to ua
the Theogony, the Shield of Hereule8(the
fincment of a larger poem), and Works
ana Da^ a didactic poem on agriculture,
the choice of days, intermixed with moral
and prudential maxima^ &i*. These works,
especially those of Homer and Heriod,
WDJch acquired a canonical importance,
and constituted, in a certain degree, the
foundation of youthful education, gave to
the character of die Greeks that particular
direction, by which it waa afterwards dis-
tmguiahed, and which was most strikingly
dispkiyed in their religion ; which, mr
want of the necessary dignity, and espe-
cially of a caste of priests, was so indefi-
nite, and therefore so ftncifiil. The mys-
ticism of the first period was, therefiire,
for the most part, discarded ; and in die
later Grecian mythology (for that a new
ratem of divimties had arisen cannot be
wmbted)^ nothing waa aeen but the peifoc-
tion of human nature. Sensuality thence
became the characteristic of the Grecian
religion, in which no other morality could
subsist but that which teaches the enjoy-
ment of the pleasures of lift with pru-
dence. Hitherto poetry had been the on-
ly inatructreas of the Gredan w<Hid; and
it remained so still, when it took another
direction. This happened in the ikxrd pe-
fiod, the age of lyric poetry, of apologuea
and philowphy, vrith which history raad-
uallv acquired a greater certainty. About
the DMrming of the epoch of the Olympi-
ads (776 B.C.), there ensued a ttue ebb and
flooa of constitutions among the small
statea of Greece. After numerous vicis-
situdes of power, during which the con-
tending partiea persecuted each other for
along tune with mutual hatred, repub-
lics, with democratical constitutions, final-
ly sprung up, which were in some meas-
ure united into one whole by national
meetings at the sacred gamea. The spirit

Eient in such a time greatly fiivored
poetry, which now became an art in
DC, and reached thesummitof itsjper-
foction at the time of the invasion or the
Persians. Next to the gods, who were
celebrated at their festivab with hymna,
their country, with its heroes, was the lead-
ing subject of this l»anch of poeUy, on
the character of which external circum-
stances seem to have exercised no slight
influence. The mental energies of the
nation were roused by the droumstances
of tba country; and the numeroua wan

GREEK UTEKATURE.

and couiiictfi, patriotisni, the lore of fte^
dom and the hatred of enemies and tw-
lanta, gave birth to the heroic ode. life,
however, was at the nme tune viewed
more on its daik flide. Thence there was
an interminffling of more sensibility in the
elegy, as wMl as, on the other side, a vi^-
orotts reliction, in which the spirit of ridi-
cule gave rise to the iambus (satire). In
eveiy thing there was a more powerful
impulse towards meditation, investigation
ana labor for the attainment of a desired
condition. The aolden age, the gift of the
gods, was fek to have depaited. Whatev-
er man discovered in fhture was to be the
fruit of his own eftbrts. This feeling
showed that the age of manhood had ar-
rived. Philosophv had become necessaiy,
■and attained contmually a greater devei-
opement It first epoke in maxims and
gnomes, in febles and in dogmatic pre-
cepts. Lvric poetry next gave utterance
to the leefinffs excited by the pleasures of
earth. Of mose who gained a reputation
in this way, as well as by the improve-
ment of music and the invention of vari-
ous forms oflyric poetry, history presents us
the names Archilochus of Pares, inventor
of the iambus ; TyrtsMis of Miletus, au-
thor of war songs ; Callimachus of Ephe-
sus, inventor of the elegiac measure ; Ak-
man, the Lydian; Arion of Methymna,
who periected the dith vrambus ; Terpander
of Antissa, inventor of the barbitos (a kind
of lyre) ; the tender Sappho of Mi^lene ;
her countryman AIcibus ; Erinna, the coo-
temporary of both ; Mimnermus of Colo-
phon, the flute player ; Stesichmtis of Hi-
men ; Ibycus of RhMium ; Anacreon and
Simonides of Oeoe ; Hipponax of Ephe-
sus; Timocreon of Rnodes; Lasus of
Hermione ; Corinna of Tanagia, the friend
and instructress of Pindar. As gnomic
writen (see Otwmie), Tbeoanis, Phocyli-
des, Pythagoras, deserve to Be named ; as
a ftbulist, iEeop. In the order of time,
several belong to the following period, but
are pn^riy placed here, on account of
their connexion. If we consider the phi-
losophy of this a^ we find it to have gen-
erally had a practica] duuacter. T^-^ phi-
losophy of life must precede tlie philos-
ophy of science. Philosophy must give
JBBSoos of wisdom, before it can fiuniah
sdendflc 8vstem& In this light must we
consider the seven torn mm qf Qrttoty as
they are called (Periander, instead of whom
othen place Epimenides of Crete or Myon,
Pittacus,Thales, Solon, Kas, Chile and Cle-
obulus) I six of whom acquired their namea,
ttotby diving into liiddenlore,but by mature
experience and the practical wadom result*

faig fivm it, by dieirprudeiioe and nAsc^
tion, their skill in aflairi of state. In tw-
ness and the aits. Their sayings aie prac-
tical rules^ originating in the co m metceof
life, and fifequently only tfaeexpresrion of
present feeHnoB. But as knowledge is the
foundation of science, fiuther inveslica-
tioDS resulted in theoretical philosophy
Tfaales was the founder of the Ionic phi-
losophy. Here we stand on the most im-
portant point of the history of the literary
developement of Greece, where poetry
ceases to contain every thmg wormy of
knowledge, to be the onlv source cm in-
struction. Hitherto she liad djschai]ged
the oflice of history, philosoi^y and re-
ligion. Whatever was to be transmitted to
posterity, whatever pracdcal wisdom and
knowledge was to be imparted, whatever
religious feelings were to be insjnred, re-
course was hA to her measured stfains,
which, fiom their rhythmical chaiacter,
left a deeper and stronger impresrion on
the memory. Hencemth it was to be
otherwise. Civil lifo was to have an im-
portant influence on hnfloage. The pub^
tic transactioniiL in which the citixen took
a part, compelled him to make the lan-
guage of common lifo more soilable fiir
pubuc delivery. This and alphabet-
ical writing, that had now become com-
mon in Greece, WHh the intioduotton of
the Egyptian papyrus, prepare d the vray
for the formation of prose. All this had
an eesential influence on the conditioB of
sdence. From epic poetry pr o ceeded, by
degrees, history. From tM practical wis-
dom conveyed in verse proceeded an in-
veetigatinff philosophy. Our former sin-
gleness of view is ttius lost We must
now necessarily turn our attention to dif-
ferent sides, and, in the rest of our sketch,
follow out each branch separately. Every
thing tended to excite the spirit cS'iiiqmry,
and a scientifie activity was every where
awakened. We may dierefors call the
finaiSkptnodf tiiat now ensued, the scmi*-
Mc wHoiL It reaches to ^ end of
Greeic literature, but is divided into sev-
eral epochs, according to the diflSMeot
spirit which predominated, and the supe-
riority which a particular branch acquired
at dififi»rent times. The fint egoeh ex-
tends from Solon to Alexander (504—^886
B. C.) In philosophy, a phynoo-speoula-
tive wpuit was manifested ; for nhikisophy
origiiuited immediately fifoin religion, and
aD religion rests on the conception ^ the
Divinity, which was not then ifistinguished
fifom nature. Now, anoe the conception
of religion contained notiung bat Poetical
ideas of tiie origm of tiie princiiwl phe*

GREEK LITEIUTURE.

nomeoa of nature, that is, of the divinities
the noat ancient philosophy was, of necea-
sky, natural philosophy, in which the hu-
man mind sought to analyze more thor-
oughly the phenomena previously observe
ed, to explain them more sati6&ctoiily,and
to comprehend them in one whole. From
the want of sufficient experimental ac-
quaintance with nature, it was to be ex-
pected that the imagination would fre-
quently interfere in the work of the un-
demanding and reason. From this cause,
these philosophical inquiries are interwov-
en with poetical imaceg. This was the
fbim of the Ionic philoaophy, whose au-
thor was Thales; the Italian, whose
fiwnder was Pytha^ras, and the older
and later Eleatic. To the Ionic school,
which sought after a material origin to the
world, befonged Pherecydea, Anaximan-
dei^ Anaximenea, AnaXagoras, Diogenes
of ApoUonia, Aiiaxarclius and Archelaus
of Miletus. The principal disciples of
the Pythagorean philosophy, which refer^
red the organization of the world to num-
ber and measure, were Alcipieon. Umie-
iB of Locris, Ocellus Lucanus, Epichar-
mus, Theaff^ Archytas, Philolaus and
Eudoxus. To the older Eleatic school,
which held the idea of a pure existence,
belonged Xenophanes, Parmenides ; to the
later, Zeno, Meuasus and Diagoras. With
this is connected the atomic school of Leu-
dppua and Democritus, and the dualist,.
Eknpedoeles. On the other hand, Hern-
clitUB stands alone in his theory of the
eternal flow of thinga Till near the 90th
CMympiad, the philosophers and their
scbolars were dispersed through all the
Greek cities. About this time, Athens be-
came their principal place of residence,
which contributed not a little to breathe
another spirit into philosophy, the Sophists
becoming the teachers. Gorgias of Leon-
tiom in Sicily, who joined the Eleatics,
Protagoras of Abdero^ Hippias of Elis,
Prodicus of Cos, Trasimacus and Tmas
are the most celebrated whose names have
reached us. Their name designates them
aa men of science ; and they were, in fact,
the encyclopeedists of thev times, who
coilectad the ideas and sentiments of the
fiirmer ^ea^ and enriched them with their
own. They were particularly distinguish-
ed in rhetoric and polities, two sciences so
highly important in democratic forms of
fovenunent ; but, not contented vnth this,
oi^abo pro&awd the natural sciences,
Bttthematics, the theory of the fine arts,
and plulosophy. In the last, it does not
aeem to have been their object to arrive at'
ftutfa, hut only to make a plausible aigu-

VOU VI. 2

ment ; and for this end were ibiined so-
phistics and erislics, or the art of reasoning,
which was afterwards called diaUcUcs;
in which their object was to prove eveiy
thing they wislied. For this tney invent-
ed those fiiUacies, still called, from them,
sophittrieSf and sought to lead their oppo-
nents astray by various meana That this
must needs be detrimental to true philos-
ophy is evident. 6o much the more for-
tunate was it tliat, in this very age, Socra-
tes appeared, who was not only a strenu-
ous antagonist of these Sophists, but open-
ed a u^w career to philosophy itself; It
has been jusdy said of him, that he brought
down philosophy from heaven to eanh,
for he gave it again a practical dhection,
differing, however, from the former, since
the object was no longer merely to* string
togetlier experiments, but philosophers be-
gan to investigate the nature and relations
of man, the object and best regulation^ of
his life ; and reflection was turned princi-
pally to psychology and morals, instead of
physics and metaphysics. Socrates had
many scholars, some of whom committed
his ideas to writing in lus manner — Cebes,
iEschines, Xenophon; others, deviating
more or less firoiu his ideas and his man-
ner, were founders of philosophical schools
of their own. The rour following schools
proceeded from that of Socrates: l.the
Cyrenaic, whose founder was Aristippus
of Cyrene (see AriHiffnu) ; 2. the Mega-
ric, Elian and Eretnan, under Eucud,
PhiBBdon ai^d Menedemus ; 3. the academ-
ic, whose founder was Plato ; and 4. the
Cynic, whose founder was Antisthenes.
Plato (a. v.] was unquestionably the most
compcenensive and splendid genius. With
the philosophical knowledge of the former
Greek philosophers, he combined that of
the Egyv^BXk priests, and the eloauence of
the Sophists. A fondness for tne super-
nitfural, a delicate moral sense, a fine, acute
and profound understaudkig, reign in his
productions, which are adorned with all
the graces of expression, and are enliven-
ed l^ a rich imagination. By his poetic
talent, the philosophical dialogue of Socra-
tes was presented under a tmly dramatic
form. While philosophy was making
such important progress, history rapidly
approached perfection. In the period
of 550—500 B. C, ttaditions were first
committed to writing in prose, and Cad-
mus, Dionysius and Hecatieus of Miletus,
Acuflikus the Aiigive, Hellanicus of MiQr-
lene and Pherecydes of Scyros are among
the oldest historical writers. Afler them
appeared Herodotus (q. v.), the Homer of
history. His example kindled Thucydi-

GREEK UTERATURR

dee to emulttion, and his eight books of
the histoiy of the Peloponneoan war
make hhn the first philosophical historian,
and a model for all his successon. If his
conciseness sometimes reudeni Thucydi-
des obscure, in Xenophon, on the contra-
ly, there prevails the greatest perspicuity ;
and he became the model of Quiet, unos-
tentatious historical writing. These three
historians are the most distinguished of
diis period, in which we must, moreover,
mention Cftesias, Philistus, Theopompus,
Euphorus, who, however, abandoned the
genuine style of historical narration for a
rh^orical af^tadon. An entirely new
^pecies of poetry was created in this pe-
nod. From the thanksgiving festivals,
which the countiy people solemnized after
the vintage, in honor of the giver of joys,
with vrila sonss and comic dances, arose,
especially in Atdca, the. drama. By de-
grees, varie^ and a degree of art were
given to the songs of tiie chorus, or dithy-
rambics, at the sacrifice of the goat, vi^hich,
in the process of time, became more seri-
ous, wnile on intermediate speaker related
popular fables, and the chorus varied tlie
etemid praises of Bacchus by moral re-
flections, as the narration prompted. Their
reward, if they gave satisfiiction, was a
goat Sportive dances were introduced,
mingled with waggish pranks, and every
thinff to excite laughter. These games of
the feast of the vintage were soon repeat- .
ed on oUier days. Solon's contemporary,
Thespis, who smeared his actors, like vin-
tagers, vrith lees of wine, exhibited at the
cross ways or in the villages, on movable
stages, stories sometimes serious with sol-
emn choruses, sometimes laughable with
dances, in which sa^rs and otiier ridicu-
lous characters excited laughter. Their
representations were called tnu;edies
(rpoYiaitat), that is, songs of the sacrifice of
the goat, or r^yioiiai, songs of the vintage;
comedies, festive dances and satirical ac-
tions (drama satyiicvm). These sports
were nnally exhibited, with much more
splendor, on the stages of the towns, and
acquired a more and more distinct charac-
ter, by their peculiar tone and morality.
Instead of an intermediate speaker, who
related his stoiy extemporaneously, iEs-
chylns first MlbBtituted actors, who repeat-
ed their parts by rote ; and he was thus the
actual creator of the dramatic art, which
was soon carried to perfection ; tragedy by
.^Eschylufl^ Sophocles, Euripides; comedy
by Cratiinis, Eupolis, Cmtcfl, but especial-
ly by Aristophanes. Under the govern-
ment of the thhty tyimts, the freedom,
which comedy had putacaitd, of holding

up living chaiBcters to ridicule, was re-
stricted, and the middle comedy wios thus
gradually fi^rmed, in which the chorus was
abolished, and, vrith delineations of gen-
eral character, chaiacteristic masks were
idso introduced. In this, Aristophanes
and Alexis were distinguished. The
mimes of Sophron of Syracuse, dramatic
dialogues in rh^micaf prose, formed a
distinct species, in connexion with which
stands the Sicilian comedy of Epichar-
mus. In the order of time, several gnom-
ic and lyric vmters belong to this period.
Several philosophers appeared as didactk^
poets — Aenophanes, Parmenides, Emped-
oeles ; as epic poets, Pisander and Pany-
asis were famous for their Heraclea, and
Antimachus for his Thebaid. The epic
soon became more and more historical,
and lost its beautiful poetic aspect With
poetiy, her severer sister, elo(}uence, also
nour^ed in this period, which republi-
can constitutions rendered necessary, and
which the Greek character speedily ele-
vated to tho rank of a fine art Antiphon,
Goi^as, Andocides, LysiaB, Lsocrates, Issb-
us, Demosthenes, iEschines, were highly
appreciated as masters of this art, for
which schools were actually established.
We still possess the admired masterpieces
of several of these orators. How near
rhetoric was then to triumphing over poe-
tiy, is manifested in Euripides, and there
is no question that it had a considera-
ble influence on Plato and Thucydidcs.
Mathematics was now cultivated, and ge-
ography served to illustrate history. As-
tronomy is indebted to the Ionic school,
arithmetic to the Italian, and geometry to
the academic school for many discoveries.
As mathematicians, Theodorus of Cyre-
ne, Meton, Euctemon, Archjrtas of Taren-
tum, Eudoxus of Cnidus, were celebrated.
Geography was, particularly, enriched by
voyages of discovery, which were occa-
aon^ by commerce ; and, in this view,
Hanno's voyage on the western coast of
Africa, the Periplus of Scvlax, a descrip-
tion of the coasts of the Mediterranean,
and the discoveries of Pythias of Massilia
in the north-west of Europe, deserve men-
tion. The study of nature was Dkewise
pursued by tiie philosophers ; but the
healing art, hitherto practised by the As-
clepiades in the temples, constituted a dis-
tinct science, and Hippocrates became the
creator of scientific medicine. The M-
lowing period is usually called the •^fexan-
driiUj and might be characterized as the
tystemaiaing or cridcal period. Athens
<lid not, indeed, cease to sustain its ancient
reputation ; but Alexandria waa» in reality,

GBEEK LITERATURE— GREECE, REVOLUTION OF MODERN. 15

the leading city. Fiom (his caufle^ the
spirit of Grecian literature necesBarily took
•noCher turn ; and it is evident, that the
use of an immense libraiy mustnecessari-
W have niade erudition triumph over the
former iiee action of mind, which, how-
ever, could not be immediately suppress-
ed, lo philosophy, Plato's acute and
learned disciple, Arvstotle, appeared as the
founder of the Peripatetic school, which
gained distinctiou by enlarging the territo-
ry c€ philosophy, and by its spirit of sys-
tem. He separated logic and rhetoric,
ethics and politics, physics and n^taphys-
'— (to which last science he gave its
» and applied philosophy to several
9 of imowledge ; thereby producing
economics, pedagogics, poetics, physiog*
nomics. He invented the philosophical
Byllocinn, and gave philosophy the form
which it fxcserved for centuries. His dis-
cqile Theophrastus followed his steps, in
the investigation of philosophy and natu-
lal histoiy. But the more dogmatic was
the philosophy of Aristotle, the more cau*
tion was requisite to the philosophical in-
«iirer, and the spirit of doubt was salutary.
This was particulariy exhibited ui the sys-
tem of scepticism which originated vnth
Pynho of Elis. A similar spirit, at least,
Bubsisied in the middle aud new acade-
mies, of which ArcesUaud and Cameades
were the found^n. The Socratic school
put forth new branches in the Stoic school,
founded by Zen6 of Citium in Cyprus, and
die Epicurean, of which Epicurus of Gar-
giettus in Attica was the founder. Mathe-
matics and astronomy made great progress
in the schools at Alexandria, Rhodes and
PemmuB. And to whom are the names
of £uclid. Arc! umedes, Eratosthenes aud
Hippoichus unknown ? The expeditions
and achievementa of Alexander turuished
abundant matter to histoiy ; but, on the
whole, it gained in extent, not in value,
ance a taste for the wondeiful had now
become prevalent The more gratifying,
dknefore, is the appearance of Potybius
of Megalopolis, about the end of this pe-
* nod, who IS to be regarded as the author
of true historical description, by which
univeisal histoiy acquired a philosophical
spirit and a wordiy object Geography,
which Eratosthenes made a science, and
Hipparchus united more closely ^tli
mathemadcs, was enriched in various
ways. To the knowledge of countries
and nations much was added bv the ac-
counts of Nearchus and Agatharchidee^ and
to chronology by the Parian chronicles.
With respect to poetiy, many reroaikable
changes occurred, m Athens, the middle

comedy gave place, not without the inter-
vention of political causes^ to the new,
which approaches to the modem drama,
as it took the moral nature of man for the
subject of its representations. Among
the 32 poets of tliis class, Menander, Phi-
lemon and Diphylus were eminent From
the mime proceeded the idyl, in which
branch of poetiy, after the period of Stesi-
chorus, Asclepiades, etc., Theocritus, Bi-
on and Moschus were pardculariy cele-
brated. The other kinds of poetiy did
not remain uncultivated ; but all these la-
bors, as well as the criticisms on poetzy
and the fine arts, point to Alexandria ; and
we shall therefore pass them over m
this place. At the end of this period^
Greece ceased to be independent, and
Rome, the queen of empires, established
her dominion over it (See the continuation
of this subject, under the articles Maam-
drian School^ and Roman LiUraturt.)

Greeccj Repolutian of Modem, (For
the history of Greece under the Eastern
empire, see ByzanUne Empire; and for
the period from die down&ll of this
-empire to the late revolution, see Turkey^
and Venice.)

For centuries, the name of Greece pos-
sessed a melancholy celebrity in the polit-
ical history of Europe. In the primitive
seat of European civilization, amid the
noblest ruins of the ancient world, one
people has preserved its existence through
the wild tempests of Asiatic conquerors,
and has recently contended with the ene-
mies of Christiani^ and civilization^ like
a shipwrecked mariner with the waves, for
life and freedom, whilst Christian Europe
beheld the death-struggle, forseven years,
without coining to any resolution which
posterity will consider as due from this ase.
From the year 1821, Europe saw me
Greeks asserting a national existence ; but
she considered this as the effort of despair,
and, from day to day, expected to see
the last sparks of Grecian life ex-
tinguiAied. She therefore withheld, for
years, the assistance that was prayed for.
Europe did not see, in the oppressors of this
people, a powerful state, resting on firm
foundations, but rather expected eveiy day
the dissolution of this hollow mass of se-
raglio slaves and janizaries. The jealous
policy, both of the neighboring and distant
powers, had thus far supported the fidiin^
state, and therefore a contest, strange as tt
was terrible, was prolonged before our
eyes, between a state and a people, both
of whom stood equally near destruction.
The Sublime Porte appeared so litde in
a condition to conquer the Greeks, that it

GREECE, REVOLUTION OF MODERN.

called from Africa the boldest and moHt
powerful of its satraps, that he might exter-
minate the men of Greece, send their wives
and children as slaves to tlie Nile, and
spread Africans over the land of classic
reminiscences. Even Frenchmen offered
their aid to subjugate the Moreo. Had
the powerful viceroy of Egypt succeeded
in uniting - under one government the
iEgean sea, the Peloponnesus, Crete and
the land of the Nile, then this Egyptian
dynasty, like tlie ancient Fatimites, would
have been in a situation to rule the Medi-
terranean sea, to close the Dardanelles, to
give laws to the trade of the Levant, and
to invade Italy. Then would Greece, that
venerable ruin of classical antiquity, have
been for ever annihilated. The' Porte,
called the hey-sUmt of thi Eunpean arch,
would hardly have been the shadow of the
last caliphs of Bagdad. Europe would have
numbered anew Sesostris among her mo^
narclis. God be thanked that the result
of the conflict has been more auspicious !

The Tuifcs and Greeks never became
one nation; the relation of conquerors
and conquered never ceased. Howe\'er'
abject a laige part of the Greeks became
by their continued oppression, tfaey never
forsot that they were a distinct nation;
and their patriarch at Constantinople re-
mained a visible point of union for their
national feelings. (See Ranke's Fwrsten
ymd Vmer, &c., Beriin, 1827.) The
Creeks had been repeatedly called upon
by Russia to shake on the Turkish yoke,
as in 1769, 1786 and 1806. . The last revo-
lution broke out in March, 1621. As
eaiiv as 1809, a society had been formed
at Paris for the liberation of Greece. In
1814, the HeUdreia (q. v.) was formed in
Vienna, but the revolution began too
eariy for their plans. Coray (q. vj with
many others, as Mustoxydy, Gazy, Ducas,
CumaSy Bambas, Gorgorios, Oiconomos,
Capetanaki, exerted themselves to enlight-
en their nation, and to prepare it. by a
better education, for a struggle for nb^rty.
Similar views had been entertained fifty
years earlier, by several Greeks, in differ-
ent parts of the country, among whom
were Panagiotis, Mavrocordato and De-
metrius Cantemir. In Greece itself, sev-
eral attempts were made to revive the
study of the ancient language, and with
it a taste for letters, civilization and liberty.
This was particularly the case in the
islands (see Ihfdriots), where intercourse
with France, and even with the U. States,
contributed to hasten the revival of a thirst
for liberty. The works of F^nelou, Bec-
caria, Montesquieu, and those of some

German scholars ; also Goldsmith's Greece
and Franklin's Poor Richard, were trans-
lated into modem Greek. At Athens, Salon-
iki,Yanina, Smyrna, Cyd(»iia(Aivali), Bu-
charest, Jassy, Kuru-Tschesme (a village
on the European shore of the BosphorusL
in Scio, &c., schools were establisliea.
But the wai' has destroyed all these schools,
with the exception of that on mount Athos.
Rhigas (q. v.) animated the spirit of his
countrymen by his so^gs. In addition to
all this, the wretched state of Turkey,
weak from without and within; every
thing, in short, seemed fiivorable, when
the precipitancy of oue or a few individ-
uals, was the origin of infinite mischief,
because the cause of liberty was not yet
ripe. February 1, 1821, prince Charles
Calimachi was appointed, by the Porte,
hospodar of Walachia, in the place of the
deceased Alexander Suzzo. Tike fear ef
new exactions (which take place, in that
country, with every new governor), pro^
duced commotions among the people of
Walachia; and this excitement seemed
to the members of the Hdaireia in St,
Pet^fiburg, to afford a favorable moment
for takuig up arms against the Turks, in
which they expected to be suppcnrted by
the Russian cabinet. Without knowing
any thing of this plan, a Walachian, Theo-
dore Wladimiresko, lefl Buchaiest, Janu-
ary 30, vrith 60 {Mindoors, and instigated
the peasants to revolt, promising them the
protection of Russia and the restoration
of their oki rights. The Amaouti, who
were sent against him, joined him, and he
soon became master of Littie Walachia,
at the head of 5000 men. The Greeks in
Moldavia likewise rose, under prince Al-
exander Ypsilanti (q. v.]^ a mnjor-general
in the Russian service. This insurrection
was connected with the Htiaireia, (q. v.)
Perhaps the object was to hasten the
ttneatened breach between Russia and
Turiiey. Besides, the Greeks always re-
lied much on the (so called) Greek protect
ofCaiharintU. March 7, 1821 (Feb. 23,
old style), a proclamation of Ypsilanti was
placarded in Jassy, under the eyes of the
hospodar Michael Suzzo, which declared,
that all the Greeks had, on that day, thrown
off the Turkish yoke ; that he would put
himself at their head with his country-
mea ; tliat prince Suzzo wished the hap-
piness of tlie Greeks; and that nothing
was to be feared, as a great power was
going to march against Turkey. Several
officeiis and meml)er9 of the netaxreia had
accompanied Ypsilanti from Bessarabia
and Jassy. Some Turks were murdered,
but Ypsilanti did all in his power to pre-

GRE£CE, REVOLUTION OF MODERN.

vent ezcesKs, and was generally succesB-
iiil. He wrote to the emperor of Ruwia,
Alexander, who was then at Laybech
(q. ?.), adung his protection for the Greek
cause, and the two principatities Walachia
and MoldaTia ; but the revolutions in Spain
andPiedmont had just then broken out, and
that monarch considered the Greek insur-
rection to be nothing but a political fever,
caught from Spain and Italy, which could
not be checked too soon {besides, Yj^lanti
was actually in the service of Russia, and
therefore had undertaken this step lujainst
die rules of military discipline). Alexan-
der publicly disavowed the measure, ¥p-
silanti^ name was struck from the army
roUA, and he was declared to be no longer
a subject of Russia* The Rusaan minis-
ter, and the Austrian iMemuncio at Con-
staminople, also declared that their cabinets
would not take advantage of the internal
troubles of Turkey in any shape what-
ever, but would remain stdotly neutral.
Yet die Porte continued suspicious, par-
ticularly afler the information of an Eng-
lishman had led to a detection of some
supposed traces of the Greek conspiracy
at Constantinople. It therefore ordered
the Rusnan vessels to be searched, con-
truT to treaty. The conunerce of Odessa
mmered from this measure, which occa-
siooed a serious correspondence between
faanm StroganofT, the Rus8ia^ ambassador,
and die reis efiendL The most rigorous
measares were taken agfdnst all Greeks :
their aehools were suppressed } their arms
seized ; susoicion was a sentence of death ;
the flight of some rendered all guilty ; it
was nrahJlMCed under penalty of death ; in
the cuvan, the total extmction of the Greek
name was proposed ; Turkish troops
marched into the principalities ; the hos-
podar Suzzo was outlawed; the patri-
archs of Constantinople and Jerusalem
ezconununicated all insurgents (Mamh
21); and a hatti-sheriff of March 31,
caUed upon all Mussulmans to arm against
the rebels for the protection of the filam;
no Greek was, for some time, safe in the
streets of Constantinople ; women and
children were thrown into the sea; the
noblest females openly violated and mur-
dered or sold; the populace broke into
the house of Fonton, the Russian coun-
sellor of legation ; and prince Murusi was
beheaded in the seraglio. Afler the arri-
val of the new srand-vizier, Benderli All
Pacfaa (appointed April 10), who conduct-
ed a (tisorderiy army from Asia to the
Boephonn, the wildest fimaticism raged
in Constantinople. In Walachia and
Moldavia, the bloody struggle (not the
2»

devastation of the comuxv, however) was
brought to a close throuffh the treachery,
discord and cowardice of the pandoors and
Amaouts, with the annihilation of the val-
iant ''sacred band^ of the /fetosreio, in the
battle of Dnigashan (June 19, 1821), and
with Jordaki's heroic death in the monas-
tery of Seek. (See YpnlanH,) In Greece
Proper, no cruelty could quench the fire
of hberty ; the beys of tlie Morea invited
ail bishops and the noblest Gnelmiffroidrm)
to Tripolizza, under pretence ot consult-
ing with them on the deliverance of the
people from their cruel of^MMQOn. Sev-
eral fell into the snare : when they amved,
they were thrown into prison. Ciermanos,
archbishop of Patras, alone penetrated the
intended treacheiy, and took measures
with the otbera for frustratincr the designs
of their oppressors. The beys of the
Morea tlien endeavored to disarm the sep-
arate tribes ; but it was too late ; the Mai-
notesy always free, descended from mount
Taygetos, in obedience to Ypsilanti's proc-
lamation,' and the heart of all Greece beat
for libeity.

Tlie revolution in the Morea began,
March 29^ 1821, at Calavota, a small
place in Achaia, where 80 Turks were
made prisoners. On the same day, the
Turkien garrison of Patras fell upon the
Greek inhabitants ; but they were soon re-
lieved. In the ancient Laconia, Colocotroni
and Peter Mavromichalis ft>used the peo-
ple to arms. The archbishop Germanos
collected the peasants of Achaia. In Patras
and the other places, the Turics retreated
into the fortresses. As eariy as April 6, a
Messenian senate assembled in Calamata,
and the bey of Maina, Peter Mavromi-
chalis, as commander-in-chief, proclaim-
ed that the Morea had shaken off the
yoke of Turkey to save the Christian
&ith, and to restore the ancient character
of their country. " From Europe, nothing
is wanted but money, arms and counsel''
From that time, the sufiering Greeks found
friends in Germany, France, Switzerland,
England and the U. States, who sympa-
thized with them, and did aH m then-
power to assist them in their strug]^.
The cabinets of Europe, on the 6cBitrary,
duew eveiy impediment in the way of
the llellemsts, mitil they were finally
obliged, against their inclination, to inter-
fere in their favor. Jilasuf Setim, pacha
of Lepanto, having deceived information
of these events fit>m the diplomatic a^t
of a European power, hastened to relieve
the citadel of Patras, and the town was
changed into a heap of ruins. The mas-
sacre of the inhabitants^ April 15, was the

GREECE, REVOLUTION OF MODERN.

eiffnal for a struggle of life and death.
Almost the whole war was thenceforward
asucceasion of atrocities. It was not a
war prosecuted on any fixed plan, but
merely a series of devastations and mur*
ders. The law of nations could not exist
between the Turks and Greeks, as they
were then situated. The monk Gregoras,
soon after, occupied Corinth, at the head
of a body of Greeks. Tlie revolution
spread over Attica, Boeotia, Phocis, iEto-
lu and Acaruania. The ancient names
were revived. At the same time, the
islands declared themselves free. In the
beginnhig of April, the wealthy merchants
and ship-owners, the bold mariners of Hy-
dra, Spezzia and Ipsara (see Ifydriots'^ long
before gained over to the cause of hberty
by Bambe^ and other patriots, erected an
independent government in Hydra. They
fitted out their vessels for war, and the
blue and red flag of the Hdcdreia soon
waved on 180 vessels, mostly of 10 or 12
ffun8.f It must be remembered that the
mhabitants of the islands, particularly
those just mentioned, and the neroic pop-
ulation of Suli, are very different from
the people of the Morea and Livadia, if
we wish to form a ct>rTect understanding
of the Greek struggle. While tlie con-
duct of the Moreots has but too oflen
drawn on them the just reproach of their
compatriots, the former have gained a
name in history, which will be honored
as lonff as an invincible love of liberty
and bold and inflexible courage in an tm-
equal struggle are prized. Even women,
among the islanders, took arms for liberty,
and, among them, Lascarina Bobolina, of
Spezzia, was distinguished. The Hydri-
olB cruised in the Turkish waters, and
blockaded the ports. In some islands,
Uie TurjLs were massacred in revenge for
the murder of the Greeks at Patras, and,
in retaliation, the Greeks were put to
death at Smyrna, in Asia Minor, and in
those islands which had not yet shaken
off the Tuiidsh yoke. The exaqieration
was raised to its highest pitch by the cru-
elties committed against the Ureeks in
ConiMantinople, after the end of March.
On mere suspicion, and often merely to
get possession of their property, the di-

* Neophytos Bambts, teacher of natural phi-
lotopby and mathemaUcs in the school of Scio.
pobRsbed, in 1818, in Venice, a manual of moral
philo80|)hy, which is one or the most vahiable
pvudttctions of modem Greek literature. He has
since been professor in the Ionian univerBity, in
Corfu, established by Uie infiuence of lord GuilfoH.

t According to Pouqueville, tl» mercantile
marine of the Greek islands consisted of 615 ves-
sels, with 17;fi00 sailors and 6878 guns

van caused the richest Grreek merchants
and bankers to be put to death. The
rage of the Mussulmans was particularly
directed against the Greek clergy. April
22, Gregory (q. v.) the patriarch of
Constantmople, was murdered, with his
bishops, in the metropolis. In Adriano-
ple, May 3, the venerable patriarch Cy-
rillus, who bad retired to solitude, and
Proesos, archbishop of Adrianople, and
others, met the same fate. Several hun-
dred Greek churches were torn down,
without the divan payinff any attention to
the^ remonstrances of tne Christian am-
bassadors. The savage grand-vizier, in-
deed, lost his place. May 1, and soon ofler
his life ; but Mahmud (q. rX and his fa-
vorite Halet Effendi, persisted in the
plan of extermination. The coura^ous
Stroganoff (q. v.) was yet less able to
make his remonstrances heard, after the
grand seignior, in order to save his fiivor-
ite, who was hated by the janizaries, on
account of his plan of reform in the mili-
tary department, gave a seat, in the divan,
to three members of those riotous troops.
The commerce of Russia, on the Black
sea, was totally ruined by the blockade of
the Bosphorus, and the ultimatum of the
ambassador was not answered. Baron
StroganofT, therefore, broke off all diplo-
matic relations with the reis effendi, July
18, and, July 31, embarked for Odessa.
He had declared to th^ divBn, that if the
Porte did not change its system, Russia
would feel herself obliged to give "the
Greeks refuge, protection and assistance.^
The answer or the reis efiendi to this
declaration, given too late, was sent to
Petersburg ; but it was only after the most
atrocious excesses committed b^ the jani-
zaries and the trooiK from Asia (for in-
stance, in Constantinople, June 27 and
July 2), that the foreign ministers, particu-
larly the British minister, lord Strangford,
succeeded. in inducing the grand seignior
to recall the command for the arming
of all Mussulmans, and to restore order.
The Porte even promised an amnesty, on
condition of the submission of the Greeks ;
but what fftiarantee was ttiete for the ful-
filment of it? Individual executions still
continued. Prince Calimachi, hospodar
of Walachia, was sent, with his familv, to
Asia Minor, where he suddenly died on
hearinff of the execution of his brother.
The old &milies of the Fanariots (q. v.)
no longer existed in Constantinople, and,
after ul the cruelties they had sufiered,
the Greeks could not trust the amnesty
of the sultan. They remembered, too,
the 900,000 Moreots, who bad been mur

GREECE, REVOLUTION OP MODERN.

dered by the orders of a former suhan,
though their pardon bad been stipulated
with Catharine IL Their hopes were al-
so strenglhened by the war which broke
out between Tuifcey and Persia, and they
never gave up the confidence that the
^^ofcorabC would at last arm for their
pzotectioD, which Rusria had taken upon
herself in the three last treaties with the
Porte. Meanwhile the Turkish general
in Epirua^ Khurahid Pacha, who was be-
sieging the rebel Ali (q. v.), in Yanina,
had sent troops against the ^uliots, into
the Morea and to Thessaly. But the
iEltolians under Rhanffos, and the Acar-
nanians under the brothers Hyscus,
obliged the Turks to shut themselves up
in Ajrta, and made themselves masters of
Salona. Ulysses put himself at the
head of some Armatolics (q. vX in Thes-
saly, and the archimandrite, Antny mos 6a-
zis, called the peasants to arms. In Euboea
(Negropont), ail the peasants took up anna,
and obliged the Turks to shut themselves
up in the fortified cities ; but these move-
ments were not decisive, because they
took place without cooperation; and, in
fiict, nothinff was efiected, but the driving
the Turks &om the country into the cit-
ies. The pacha of Saloniki delivered the
pacha who was besieged in Larissa.
Omer Vrione, the lieutenant of Khurahid
Pacha, entered livadia; the inhabitants
of Athens fled to the islands ; the Acrop-
olis was garrisoned by Turks. The
Greeks afWwards retook Athens, and at-
tempted to reduce the Acropolis bv fion-
ine ; but it was relieved by Omer Vrione,
July dO, 1821, and the inhabitants of
Athens again fled to Salamis. On the
Achaian sea, Greek and other pirates
frustrated the plans of the navarcks (ad-
mirals) in Hydra, and the European pow-
ers were obliged to protect their vessels
by cruisers. In the funeral confusion,
the islanders distinguished themselves
by their valor in batUe, and their greater
order in the organization of government ;
and if much complaint has been made
against their piracies, it must be remem-
bered, that the convulsed state of things
offered great temptations to piracy ; that
the government was too weak to re-
prefls it ; and that, privateering being law-
ful against the Turks, it was not straiuie
that a people, so much removed flrom the
influence of European civilization, ex-
ceeded the legitimate limits of private war-
five. The Cneek sailors were bolder and
touch more expert than the Turkish,
Iheir vessels much swifier. In ftct, we
can hardly imagine a navy in a more

wretched state of discipline than the
Turkish. When, therefore, the first Tuik-
ish squadron left the DardaueHes^ Mav
19, the Greeks constantly puraued it with
their fire-ships, avoiding, at the same
dme, a general engagement; and, June
8, they attacked a vessel of the line,
which had got ashore at Tenedoe, burned
it, and compeUed the rest of the squad-
ron to put back to the Dardanelles. June
13, the Ipeariots landed on the coast of
Asia Minor, and took possession of the
ancient Cydonia, now the Greek city of
Aivali ; but, after they had retired, the
Turks burned the city, and 35,000 inhabi-
tants either perished or were driven from
their homes. The ill success of their ex-
pedition added fresh fuel to the rage of
the Turks. The Greeks in the island of
Candia, who had avoided all participation
i9 the insurrection, were disarmed, and
their archbii^op and several clergymen
executed. But the peasants in the moun->
tains, and the inhabitants of the small
island Sphakia, called the Sidiois of
Candia, refused to nve up their arms,
collected, and drove tne Turks back again
into die towns. From that dme, the
struggle continued, and the Turks, though
supported by several thousand men from
Egypt, were never acain abte to make them-
selves masters of me highlands. They,
however, maintained themselves in the
cities. Madden, in his Travels in Egypt,
&C., gives some interesting details of the
Esyptian expedition to Candia. On the
isuuid of Cyprva, where also there had
been no appearances of an insurrection,
the Greeks were disarmed in November,
1821, and almost all the inhabitants of
Lamica, with the ard^bishop and other
prelates, murdered. T^e peasants united
for mutualprotection ; as a punishment
for which 68 villages were burned in Au-
gust, 1832. Since that time, the stillness
of the grave has brooded over Cyprus.
Similar atrocities were committed by the
Turks at Scala Nuova, in Rhodes and at
Pergamos, after die Greeira had surprised
the latter place. In Simyma, also, new
cruelties were committed ; and the Euro-
pean consuls did not succeed until No-
vember, 1881, in inducing the pacha t»
put a stop to the enormities of the
Turks* Since that thne, the ppblic se-
curity has rareh^ been intemiptad in that
place.* But ^ die European prov-

* Here, and in other places, the comaiandei*
of French, Encliah, Austrian and American vea-
sets, and the CHiropean conaals, among whom the
French consal^ David, deflerves to be particulari/
mentioned, saVed the lives of many anfortuaai*

GREECE, RE\OLUTION OF MODERN.

inces of Turkey, the crueltieB against
ChristiaDS continued, as the sultan had
issued a hatUrdimff (September 20,
1821), calling upon all Mussuhnans to
take arms against the Giaours. This
order was not piublislied in Constanti-
nople, for which the populace, in that
place, revenged themselves by setting
nre to the city, whenever news of ill
success exasperated them against the
Greeks.

The great Turidsh fleet, under the cap-
' udan pacha, Kara All, strengthened by
Egyi>tian, Tunisian and Algerine vessels,
had, indeed, driven awav the Greek flotil-
las,^ supplied the Turkish garrisons in the
Morea with troops, arms and provisions,
burned the small vUli^ of Galaxidi, in the
gulf of Ijepaiito, October % 1821, and
taken some small Greek fishing cnift in
the harbor of this place. Yet the fleet
had effected nothing decisive. Hardly
had it returned to the Dardanelles, Octo-
ber 22, 1821, when the Greek fleets re-
newed their system of blockade, and be-
came, as formerlv, masters of the iEgean
sea and the fpAl of Saloniki. Mean-
while, Demetnus Ypsilanti had arrived at
Hydra, with prince Alexander Cantacu-
zeno, with authori^ from his brother,
Alexander Ypsilanti. In Hydra, the un-
fortunate result of the struggle in Wala-
chia was not yet known. Denietrius
promised the aid of Russia, and announc-
ed the restoration of the Greek empire.
Yet it was with great difliculty that he
succeeded in being appointed, on Julv 24,
1821, arckistrategaa (conmiander-in-chief )
of the Peloponnesus, the Archipelago,
and all the liberated provinces, and, as
such, in being placed at the head of
the Greeks in the Morea, where the dis-
sensions among the anntimij and the un-
disciplined state of the soldiery, had a
most injurious effect Soon after (Au-

Sist 3), the principal Turidsh fortress,
onembasia (Napoii di Malvasia) surren-
dered to prince Cantacuzeno, and Nava-
rino to Demetrius Ypsilanti ; but the ra-
pacious Moreots did not observe the arti-
cles of capitulation. Some details of
what happened afler the capitulation of
Navarino are related in the editor's Jour-
nal in Greece (in German, Leipsic, 1823).
Demetrius, disgusted at this disorder, de-
clared his mtention to leave Greece, un-
less he were invested with power to put
a stop to this licentiousness, which he re-
ceived at least nominally. At the same
time, the senate of Calamata united with

persons, wlio would otherwise have become the
victims of Turidsh or Greelc fanaticism.

that of Hydra, in order to assemble a con-
gress of deputies from all Greece, at Ca-
lamata. Whilst Mavrocordato and others
were making these preparationa, Deme-
trius Ypsilanti was closely besieging Tri-
jmlizza, the chief fortress of the Turks,
atuated in the plain of Mautinea, in the
centre of Greece. The garrison was on the
point of surrendering, when the appear-
ance of the Turkish fleet, in the waters of
the Peloponnesus, gave them new cour-
age. But in order to induce the Tiukish
troops to make an obstinate resistance,
from feiar of the vengeance of the Chris-
tians, the Turkish commanders, at Tripo-
lizza, ordered 80 priests and noble Greeks,
who had been brought there, in part, by
the treacherous invitations of the bevs, to
be all murdered, excepting two. October 5,
afler 2000 Albanians nad received permis-
sion to depart, and the negotiationB with
the Turks were broken ofl*,Tripolizza was
taken by storm. The last post was sur-
rendered, on terms of capitulation, by tlie
gallant Kiaja Bey; but the Moreots
could not be restrained, and 8000 Turks
perished. Even the Albanians were at-
tacked, and some of them pltmdered. In
Tripolizza, the Moreots earned their first
heavy cannon, and the place became the
seat of the soi-diaant Greek government,
until it was transferred to Argos.

Ulysses was equally successfiil in Thes-
sally. He and some other guerilla lead-
ers, or ctmitanif among whom was Pere-
vos, on September 5 and 6, near Ther-
mopylae, defeated a Turkish army, which
had advanced from Macedonia. January
26, 1822, the Acrocorinthus (q. v.| fell into
the hands of the Greeks by capitulation.
On the other hand, the ])acha of Saloniki
took the peninsula of Cassandra, Nov. 11,
by storm, the Greeks having become en-
feebled by dissensions. 3000 Greeks were
put to the sword, women and children
carried into slavery, and the flourish-
ing peninsula made a desert The monks
and hermits on mount Athos (Monte San-
to), alone saved themselves by a heavy
ransom, and remained imd]8turii>ed, be-
cause the Turks consider these rockv her-
mitages sacred. At the same time, iCliur-
shid Pacha, November 13, assaulted All's
fortress Zathariza, and the old tyrant of
Epinis in vain expected succor fix>m the
Greeks in his last place of refuge, a castle
in the lake near Yanina. The Greeks, to-
wards tlie end of November, having occu-
pied Arta, without obtaining possession of
the citadel, were obliged to leave the city
in the middle of December, when Omer
Vrione returned fix>m Livadia, and di»-

GREECE, REVOLUTION OF MODERN.

perse themselves in the mountains. Dur-
ing this irregular war, the government be-
gan to acquire some form, as the separate
senates established connexions with each
other. They invested Demetrius Ypsilanti
with the chief command in the Morea,
Ulyases with the same office in Thessaly,
and somewhat later abo in Attica. Prince
Havrocordato received the chief command
in the Albanian provinceSb They final-
ly sent prince Cantacuzeno to the empe-
ror Alexander, to implore his assistance ;
but the prince could not obtain passports
for SLPeterabufg, because the system of the
holy alliance was neutralUy(wi they called
it)y and discouragement of the Greek
insurrection. EquaUy unsuccessful were
the navarckSf in Hydra, in their attempts
to sectBPe the neutrality of the viceroy of
Egypt by aea, as he now hoped for an op-
portunity of uniting Crete with Egypt

Fint Men^ iowanii a Politteai Or-
gamzaUonjtfthe Grtehj Janvarv 13 (/oit^
1101^ 1), 1838, m JSpidoiiriw, imM tie
ATaHonid Autmbty in Astro, March 14,
182a. With the greatest difficuhy, M«v-
Tooordato and some prelates had suc-
ceeded in giving somewhat of a Men^
tive constitution and a central govenunent
to a eoimtry which was by no means yet
entirely freed from the Turks, and was oc-
cupied bv parties often hostile to each
ether. The western part of Greece —
Acarmmia, iEtolia and Epirus, sent thirty
deputies to Bliasolonghi, who, under the
preridency of Alexander Mavrocordato,
ronned a government or gerousia, Nov.
4, 1821, consisting of ten members ; the
eastern part of the main-land, comprising
Attica, BoBotta, Euboea, Phocis, Locris,
Dcyris, Ozohe, Thessaly and Macedonia,
sent thirty-three deputies to Salona, who,
under the presidency of Theodore Negria,
formed, on the 16tn of November, the
areo}Migus of fourteen membera. The Mo-
rea, or the Peloponnesus, with the islands
of Hjrdra, Ipsara, Spezzia, &c., sent six^
deputies to Ar^os, who assembled, Dec 1,
under the presidency of prince Demetrius,
and estab&shed the Peloponnesian gtrot^
sia of twenty members. These three gov-
enunents were to prepare a permanent
constitution, which was to receive, in fu-
ture, such amendments as experience
sfaouid suggest. For this purpose, 67
deputies fiom all the provinces of Greece
fomed the first national assembly in Epi-
daunis, Jan. 10, 18S22, under the presi"
dency of Mavrocordato, which, Janu-
ary 13, the Greek new year's day, pro-
clainned a provisionary constitution. Its
principles were the follo^ving: the annual

election of all chief magistrates of the

Erovinces, districts and communities;
iws were (a be made by the concurrent
vote of the delilienitive and execudve
councils ; the execution of laws ^vas to
rest with the executive coundl, which
appointed the ei^t ministen; the inde-
pendence of the judiciary was to be pro-
vided for ; this branch of government wa^
to be exercised by the district^ proiincia)
and supreme courts. The congress then
elected the thirty-three memben of the
legislative and the ^y^ members of the
executive council Mavrocordato was
elected proidna, or president ; Theod. Ne-
gris, secretaiy of state of the executive
council ; Ypsilanti, who had expected this
place, was appointed preodent of the
legislative council, but never discharged
the duties of his office. Finally, the con-
mss c^ Epidaurus issued a manifosto,
Jan. 27, 1822, in which they pronounced
the union of the Greeks under an inde-
pendent federative govetnment The
operadon of this was not so beneficial as
had been expected. A people so l6ng en--
slaved, and so deficient in civilization,
could not at once establish a wise and
firm government. The central govem-
ment fixed its seat at Corinth, and, at a
later period, again at Argos. The Porte was
now obliged to divide its forces. One
army was unsuccessfully employed in Ap-
menia on the Euphrates, against the Per-
nans ; another was stationed on the
Danube, to observe the Russian army in
Bessarabia. But All's foil enoourased
the Porte, and it was with difficuky 3mi
the Austrian and English ministerB could
ccmvince the divan of the peaceaMe in-
tentions of Alexander. But, in 1832; at
the request of Runia, the sultan ordered
die restoration of some Greek churches,
and the elecdon of a new patriareh in
the usual way. The choice feD upon An-
thymos, bishop of Ohalcedon. He was
treated with respect, for the purpose of
inducing the Greeks to mccept the amnes-
ty. The Aoatic hordes, in May, 1822,
evacuated the principalities of Wakchia
and Moldavia, after committing eveiy kind
of excess ; in July, new hospodars were
appointed— Ghika for Walachia, and
Sturdza for Moldavia ; both were Boyards,
and Greeks were excluded from aU ofiSces
in the principalities. The new hospodan
were under tlie superintendence of Turicish
seraskiers, and European Turks continued
to occupy the principalities; they were,
however, withdrawn fix>m Jassy, which
they burned and pillaged, Auffust 10, 1832;
enraged at the or&re of the divaik

9»

GREECE, REVOLUTION OF MODEBK.

Meanwhile, the year 1832 hod produced
important results in Greece, because both
parties had followed, in some soil, a
militarv plan of operations. After Ali'b
&U, Khurshid Pacha in Thessaly deter-
mined to collect reinforcements from Ru-
melia, in order to conquer Livadia and
Morea, whilst, in February and March,
1822,a Turkish fleet, under tiali Bey, was
to reinforce the sarrisons in the Morea, so
that Jussuf Pacha, from Patros and Le-
panto, could support Khurshid's attack up-
on the isthmus and his invasion of the Mo-
rea. But the attempt of the Tuikish fleet
to reduce the Morea by fresh troops, to-
tally failed, and the opposition of the
Suliots kept back the seraskierin Epirus.
These events gave Colocotroni time to
shut up the troops, which had been land-
ed in Patzas, and to send assistance to
Acamania. At the same time, new insur-
rections broke out in several places, which
ajgain divided the power of the Tuiks.
The misfortune of Scio saved the Greek
main-hmd. The numerous Greek popu-
lation of the flourishing and deitoceless
island of Scio (see Scio) had declined
eveiy invitation to engajie in the revolu-
tion ; but, March 23, 1 822, a Gredt fleet
from Samos, under Logotheti, having ap-
peared on the coasts, the peasants^ who
labored under the greatest oppressions,
took up arms. Great disorders occurred,
and the Turks, after having taken 80 ho»-
tapes from amone the richest inhabitants
ofthe city, retired mto the citadel. At this
moment, the ffreat Turkish fleet made its
appearance. In order to punish Scio, the
capudan pacha abandoned his dian of
operations against the Morea, and landed
(April lltfa) 15,000 of the most barbarous
of the Asiatic troops, after the Sciots had
rejected the ofier or amnesty. The island-
ers were beaten, and in a few days the
paradise of Scio was changed into a scene
of fire and blood. It was with great dif-
ficulty, and at the risk of their own lives,
that tike European consuls (among whom
the courageous French consul Digeon
was distinguished), and the captains of
some European vessels, were able to save
a few hundred Greeks. Part of the peo-
ple escaped to their vessels ; otiiers con-
tinued tne struggle of despair in the
mountains. The European consuls, by
means of a ppstoral letter of the arch-
bishop, and by the written assurance of
the surviving hostages, that the Sciots
might trust the oflbred amnesty, if ttiey
would deliver up their leaders and their
arms, finally effected the submission of
the peasants. Still, mlirders, burmugs and

did not eease. According to
le 'iXirtcish lists, down to the 25th of
Mav, 41,000 Sciots, mostiy women and
children, were sold into slavery. A sim-
ilar late was prepared for Ipsara, Tine and
Samoa. But the Ipsariots, having already
made preparations to send their ftunilies
to the Morea, hovered roimd the Turkisli
fleet with 70 small vessels, among which
were several ifire-ships, called hq^JuBOiaj
which were as ingeniously constructed
as they were skUfiilly directed^ Forty-
three Ipsariots and Hydriots devoted
tiiemselves to' death, rowed with their
scampamas (a kind of runboats) into the
midst of the fleet of tne enemy, which
still lay in the road of Scio ; and in the
night of June 18, 1822, captain George
attached fire-ships to the ship of the cap-
udan pacha ana to another vessel of the
line. The former blew up, vrith 2286
men; the latter was saved. The capu-
dan pacha was mortally wounded, and
carried on shore, where he died. The
Turks were at first stupified; but their
rase soon broke out, and the last traces of
ctutivation, the mastic villages, so lucra-
tive to the Porte, were destroyed. In
Constantinople, Turics bought Sciots
merely for the purpose of putting them
to death at pleasure. The merchants of
Scio, resident at Constantinople, and the
hostages which were carried thither, were
executed in secret or in public, unthout
any kind of local process. Thus the
Morea and the Archipelago were taujriit
what fiite they were to expect "Iiie
Porte, however, began to perceive that it
was destroying its own resources by the
^stem of devastation. The jpacha of
Smyrna, therefore, received stnct injunc-
tions fix>m the sultan to maintain order
and to protect the Greeks. In Scio, the
new governor, Jussuf Bey, gave b^k the
lands to those Greeks \^o returned. In
Cyprus, where the murder of the Chris-
tians had been continued until the end of
1822, Salih Bey, a humane officer of the
pacha of Effypt, finally protected the dis-
trict under his commana from utter devas-
tation; and, in 1823, the new governor,
Seid Mehemet, endeavored to restore or-
der in the whole island. The insursents
also occupied the Turiush troops in Mace-
donia. The enormities of the Anatio
troops, who traversed this province, to
join Khurshid's army, excited an insur-
rection among the mountaineers, who had
previously remained quiet Under the
ca{^itani Dlamantis, Taasos and others,
they occupied tiie passes ofthe Ohrmpus,
and, March 24, 1822, captured the im-

GREECE, REVOLUTION OF MODERN.

place of CanirVena, the ancieDt
But the pacba of Shdoniki, Ab-
bohibuc, finally defeated them with lua
caTafay at Niausta ; the peasants diaperaed,
and about 150 villages experienced the
ftte of Scia 5000Christian fiunilies per-
ished, and the pacha boasted that he had
munkored in one day 1500 women and
children. Even the Porte disapproved
these measures, and the pacha was con-
demned to be strangled ; but, surrounded
by his body-guard, m the fortress of Sa-
loniki, he esoiped the exeicution of the
sentence. (The Poite afterwards, how-
ever, appointed him aeraakier of Rumelia,
and in November, 1883, he marched with
15.000 men fiom Lariasa to Zeitun.)
Whilst Scio was desolated, and Macedonia
bled, the central government at Corinth,
under Mavzocordato, president of the
executive council, was engaged, in con-
nexioii with the provincial goveromeuts,
in oiganizing the administration of the
country, proviaionally, by the law of April
30,18^ (the first year of independence),
innnoducin^ order into the army, nusioff a
loan, promisuig the soldiers land (by me
law of May 7, 1833, May 19, new style),
and, as there existed no taxes except cus-
tomia, in laying a tax on the productions
of the soil ; but they met with resistance
in almost all their attempts, particularly
fiom the old capitani, who had been en-
tirely independent durinfj^ the government
of the Tuiks. Each desued to command
and to fight on his own account, and for
hia own profit Thus the avaricious and
ambitious Colocotroni, the fierce Ulysses,*
and the haughty MavromichaJis, and
even Ypsilanti, yielded with reluctance to
the new order Of things. The deficiency
of human language, which oblig^ us to
use the same word for things which are
very different, constantly creates misun-
dentanding, and we must warn our read-
en not to connect with the words gov-
ammeniy mimstarsy 2air, &c^ applied to
Greece at this time, such ideas as they
annex to the words when used of Euro-
pean or North American afiairs. If a
naiicMi, which has been for centuries in a
state of oppression and lawlessness, rises,
it must undergo many changes before the
dements of order are developed. Under
the Tuiks, the Greeks had no connexion
with each other; how could they be ex-
pected to form at once apeacefiil whole?

* Uljnei ev«ii ordei»d a brave officer, the col-
enel Haverino Palaaca, and a capitaoo, Alexis
HuaOf tent by govenuneot to induce the wild
caiMtaoo to act in conceit with a general plan of
' fi, to be put to death.

The bravest soldiers among them were
the capitani fii>m Maine and Suli, but
these bad been, mostly, cUphtes or rob-
bers, totally independent, and vrished to
continue the war independently, for their
own interests, as they had previously
done. Of this class is Colocotroni. Sub-
mission to anjr sort of national organiza-
tion was foreign to their habits. The
inhabitants of the Morea were mosdy
wretched peasants, who had always tived
in such a state of bondage, that they were
only fit to engage an enemy under shelter^
or when their numbers were gieatly supe-
rior, but could never be brought to fight
in open combat on equal terms. They
were, moreover, poor, and few among
them could be induced to make any sac-
rifices. At the same time, they thought
liberty delivered them fiom all taxes ; and,
indeed, what had they to pay ? War, put-
ting a stop to production, left the govern-
ment without resources, and without the
means of exercisinff authority. Add to
this, that the Greeks were continually
quarrelling among themselves. The ed-
itor was present at a fight between the
eapitano Niketas and some Moreots, for
the possession of some cattle. Under
these circtmistanees, the words ktw and
got^emifietit must be understood in a very
restricted sense. The editor^s Journal,
above referred to, relates particulal-ly to
the state of Greece at this period. All
that enabled the Greeks to continue their
straggle was the wretchedly undisciplined
character of their Turkish enemies.
Mavrooordato had a difiicult part to per-
form, because he had not ootained his
dignity oi proidras on the field of battle.
Yet, by the influence of Negris, he receiv-
ed the command of the expedition to
Western Hellas (Epirus), with full civil
and military power. The proedros, with
2000 Peloponnesians and the corps of
Philhellenes* (about 300 men, under gen-
eral Nermann, formerly a general in the
Wfirtembeig service), loined, on June 8,
the Albanian bands of the brave Marco
Botzaris, for the piupose of covering Mis-
solonghi, the strong-hold of Western Hel-
las, of relieving Sidi, and capturing Arta. ,'
Here they had to contend with the pacha
of Yanina, Omer Vrione, and the pacha
of Arta, Ruchid, whilst the Turidsh com-
mander-in-chief(seraskier) Khurshid/who
had made an imsuccessfiil attack on Ther-
mopylsB in Ma^, had forced his way ( Jime
17) through llicala to Larissa. Siili, in

* Those Europeans and Anericans who bad
gone to Greece to serve io tha insarrection.

GREECE, REVOLUTION OF MODERN.

AUmuub, was reiieyecl ; but, after the
btoody bfitOe of Peta (July 16, 1823),
where ^ camtano Gozo treacherouely
jQed, and the PtiilheUeiiistB, who made the
longest stand a^[ain8t the enemy, lost 150
men, with thdr artiUeiy and baggage,
RotsBBiis and Nonnann were obliged to
throw themselves into the mountains.
Mavrocordato in vain called the people to
arms ; the other commanders remed to
'assist him; general Vamakioti went over
to the enemy, and the internal dissen-
sions among the Albanians enfeebled the
strength of die Greeks. The oastle of Suli
was surrendered to the Turks on Sept
90. Part of the Suliots (1800 men, with
their wives and children) took refuge un-
der the protection of the British in €eph-
alonia ; the rest fled to the mountams.
Mavrocordato, with 300 men, and Marco
Botzaris, with 22 Suliots, finally threw
themselves (November 5) into Missolon-
ghi. ^Here," said the former, ** let us
mil with Greece." Omer Vrione now
considered himself master of ifitolia, and
advanced, with Ruchid, at the head of
11,000 men, to Missolonghi. Jussuf Pa-
clim sent troops from Patras and Lepanto
against Corinth, and Khurahid, who, in
Lariss^ had received reinforcements from
Rumelia and Bulgaria, determined to ad-
vance £rom Theasaly, through Livadia
(where the Greeks, June 19, 1822. had
reduced the Acropolis by &nune, aner a
siege of four months), agamst the isthmus ;
and then, afier fornung a union with Jus-
suf and Omer Vrione, to crush the insur-
gents in the Morea. His main body,
25,000 strong, composed principally of
cavahy, had aheady passed Thermopylae,
which Ulysses had defended so valiantly in
May and June, without opposition. On
his march through Livadia, he laid every
thing waste, proclaimed an amnesty, and
occupied Corinth, which a priest of the
name of Achilles, who sAerwards killed
himself, had basely surrendered on July
19 ; but when KhurBliid attempted to
penetrate the passes in person, he was
three times repelled by Ulysses, nearlA-
rissB, where he died, November 26, just
before the arrival of the capidgi bachi,
wha brought his death warrant That
body of cavalry, however, whieh had so
rasmy pushed forward without in&ntry,
and was unable to obtain food or proven-
der, perished in the defiles of the Morea.
When it advanced against Areos (from
which tlie central government had fl^),
fbnned a junction with 5000 men of Jus-
suTs army, and sent reinforcements to
Napoli di Ramania, the danger united all

the capitani. Nioholas Niketas, who was
on the point of taking Napoli di Romanu
by capitulation, Mavromichalis and Ypsi-
lanti retreated to the heights of Aigos,
laying waste the open country ; Ypsilanti,
m the ruins of the casde of Arsos, held
the enemy in check ; the Greek fleet pre-
vented the relief of Naijplia, or Napou di
Romania, by the great Turkish fleet, and
took an Auman store-ship, bound to Na-
poli di Romania ; Ulysses occu|Hed the
defiles of Geranion ; Colocotroni hasten-
ed fix>m Palras, which he was besieg-
ing, to the scene of danger, called the
people to the standard of the cross, as-
sumed the chief command, and, in the
latter part of June, occupied the defiles
between Patras, Aigos and Corinth, by
which he cut ofiT the connexion of the
Turks m Thessaly with Khurshid. The
skirmishing began on all sides, and con-
tinued day and night, from August 1 to
August 8. On the latter day, the Turkish
commander-in-chief, Dram Ali (or Tshar
Hadgi Ali Pacha), whose troops liad noth-
ing but horse-flesh to cat, oflered to evac-
i^ate the Morea ; but Colocotroni refused
the offer. The pacha then determined to
break through to the isthmus of Corinth ;
but Niketas fell upon the separate corps
of the Turks, on the night of August
9, in the defile of Tretes; so that
hardly 2000, without artilleiy or bag^pnge,
reached the isthmus, where Ypsilanti en-
tirely destroyed them.* Another corps,
which fled towards Patras, was destroyed
by Colocotroni ; the remaining corps was
routed by the Mainots, August 26, near Na-
poli. Thus more than 20,000 Turks disap-
peared, in four weeks, fh)m the Greek soil.
Some thousands still held the isthmus and
the Acrocorinthus, but were soon obliged to
evacuate the isthmus, and were destroyed
by Niketas, in the defiles, in an attempt to
break through to Patras. 500 Turks re-
mained in the Acrocorinthus until No^
vember, 1823. The conquerors and the
Moreots now perceived, that they must
not seek safety behind the isthmus, but
must push the war under Ol^pupus. Tlie
Turkish fleet, which had lain at anchor
for four weeks in the gulf of Lepanto, and
had attacked Missolonghi witnout suc-
cess, set sail, September I, with the plague
onboard. After an unsuccessful attempt
to break through the line of 57 Greek
brigs, which blockaded Nauplia, it finally
came to anchor at the entrance of the
Dardanelles, ofTTenedos. November 10,
17 daring sailors, of the band of the

* Hence Niketas received the tonnune of
IStrkophagos, the Turk-eater.

GREECE, REVOLirnON OF MODEftN.

40 IpeariotB, dreased like Turin, conduct-
ed two fireships under foil sful, as if
they were flying fit>m the Greeks, whil^
two Ipsariot yeflBeb pursued them, firing
on them with blank cartridges, into the
inidst of the Turkish fleet, and fastened
one of them to the admiral's ship, the
otho- to the ship of die capitanarbey.
Both were soon in flames ; the former
narrowly escaped ; the latter blew up
with 16d0 men ; the capudan pacha, Cara
Mehmet, however, cot on shore, before
the explosion took puoe. Three frigates
were wrecked on the xroast of Asia Minor ;
one Teasel of 36 guns was captured ;
A0I1I18 and terror destroyed a part of the
Ottoman fleet, and of 35 vessels only 18
retmnoted, much injured, into the Dardai*
nelles^ The 17 Ipsariott anived safely
at Ipsani, where tlie ephori rewarded
their leaders, Constantine Kanaris and
Geoive Minauly, with naval crowns.
The Greeks were once more masters of
the sea, and renewed the blockade of the
Turkish ports, which Great Britain now
fbrmally acknowledged. The British
govenunent seemed to have changed their
policy cowards the Greeks, from the time
of Canning's entrance into the ministry,
and Maitland, lord high commissioner of
the Ionian isles, dismayed less hostility
against them. Even Austria and France,
who had previously protected neutral ves-
seb against ^ the aroitrary and unlawful
measure of the blockade," now seemed
to acknowledge the right of blockade
1^ the Greeks. Greek vessels delivered
IttisBcJoDj^ on the sea side, November
30. The Suliots maintained themselves
in the defiles of the Chimcera, and the
remains of the army of Mavrocordato on
the coast of the gulf of Lepanto. The
amnesty, proclaimed by Omer Vrione, met
witli no confidence among the mountain-
eea ; had he not ah-eady betrayed two of
bis former mteters ? His expedition
agaiBBt ^tolia entirelv Med. Wherever
his troops appeared, the peasants burned
their vulages, collected m bands in the
mountaina, and continued the guerilla war-
fiu«.* Near Missolcmghi, finally, which,
finora Nov. 7, 1822, to the assauh of Jan. 6,
1823, he had repeatedly attacked, Omer

• "Hie war. as we have already said, was not
carried on ^y regular battles, but coosisted of
skimiishes, surprises, d&c, as every insurrection
of aa aodisdpfined people must 3 and/generallv
" r, it is the way u which men can most ef-
.. r defend their own soil against well ap-

^ d' iavaden. The Greeks were well fitted for

tJas sort of war, by their uncommon activity. Their
iwiftaess in rornimg is such, that many of them can
overtake a well mounted honeman in a long race.

VOL. VI. 3

YrioBe was repulsed by Mavrocordato
and Marco Botzaris, with great loss ; he
was obliged to raise the siege, lost his *
ordnance, and retreated to Vonitza. The
most important consequence of this im-
successflil campai«rn of the Tmrks, was
the fiiil of Napoli di Romania, (q. v.) On
the day of St Andrew, the patron of the
Morea (November 30, old style, Decem-
ber 12, new style), a band of volimteers
took the fort ralomidi by assault. This
brought the city into the power of the
Greeks, who observed the tenns of the
capitulation, and transported the Tturkish
garrison to Scala Nuova. The seat of
l^v^mment was to have been established
m this bulwark of Peloponnesian inde-
pendence, when the old discord among
the capitani broke out anew, and Coloco-
troni became suspected of the de^gn of
becoming prince of the Morea imder
Tiuidsh protection.

Meanwhile, Constantinople was dis-
tiubed by the riots of the janizaries. The
unsuccet^ul campaign in the Morea, the
disasters in Asia, the scarcity in the capi-
tal (caused by the interruption of impor-
tations by the Greeks), the severe sumptu-
ary orders of the sultan, and the command
to deliver up the gold and silver to the
mint, the debasing of the coin, and the
obstruction of commerce, caused general
dissatisfaction among the Mussulmans.
Halet Effendi, die faitbftil fiiend of the
siUtan from his youth, who had become
obnoxious on accoimt oi' his plans for
quelling the mi|tinous spirit of the ianiza-
ries (who refused to puu-ch to the Morea)
by means of Asiatic troops and European
discipline, and on accoimt of his influ-
ence, which excluded the grandees of the
empire from the confidence of the sultan,
fell a victim to the hate of the soldiery.
Sultan Mahmud II (q. v.) found himself
constrained to discharge tne adherents of
Halet— the grand-vizier Salih Pacha, the
mufti, and other high officers. He hoped
to save his friend by an honorable ban-
ishment to Asia (Nov. 10) ; but he was
obliged to send his death warrant after
him, and Halet's head, with those of his
adherents, was exposed on the gates of the
seraglio (Dec, 4, 1822). The hatti-sheriff,
which appointed Abdtdlah Pacha, a friend
of the janizaries, grand-vizier, concluded
with the words, " Look well to your ways,
for, God knows, the danger is great"

AdopHonofa Constiiuhonm Greece, and
third Mnavuicessfid Campcdfcn of the Turks
against the Greeks, w 1823. The central
government of Greece, in which Mavro-
corda^ and Negris were distinguished,

GREECE, REVOLUTION OP MODERN.

aimed at two objects. Fully sensible of
the truth of the words of a Greek author,
"as all the states of Greece wished to
rule, all have lost the sovereignty," they
endeavored to establish union at home ;
on which, at the same time, they founded
their hope that Europe would, at length,
look witn approbation and confidence on
the restoration of an independent Greek
state. In this view, the Greek govern-
ment at Corinth issued a proclamation to
the Christian powers (April 15, 1822) ;
but the negotiations on the Greek affairs,
at Vienna, and afterwards at Verona, took
a turn unfavorable to the Greeks, or rather
remained unfavorable, when the Porte, by
its declarations of February 28 and Apnl
18, 1822, seemed to be disposed to be more
lenient The ''holy alliance'* then thought
that the continuance of the Porte as a
legitimate power, and the acknowledg-
ment of Greek independence, were incom-
patible; yet tlie powers thought tliem-
selves obiijsed to interpose with the sultan
in favor of the Civil and religious security
of the Greeks. Count Metaxa was sent
as envoy of the Greek government to the
congress of Verona (see Congress) ; but .
he was only permitted to go to Roveredo.
Jan. 2, 1823, he wrote m>m Ancona to
pope Pius VII, describing the miserable
condition of Greece, imploring his inter-
cession with the monarchs, and declaring
at the same time, that the Greeks were
willing to submit their rights to the exam-
ination of the congress, and to be ruled by
a Christian sovereign, under wise and
firm laws, biit would never again consent
to any sort of coimexion with the Turks.
The government of Argos declared the
same, in a memorial of Aug. 29, 1822,
directed to the congress. The answer to
these entreaties is contained in tlie follow-
ing passage of the circular of Verona
(Dec. 14, 1822): Les mmcarques^ dkidh a
repousser le pnncipe de la r^voUe, en qud-
que lieu d sous qudqiiefornve qu^il se num-
trat, se haUrent de le frapper d^une igale et
unamme rhjrobaiiofL Mais icovtaiii en
mhne terns la voix de lew conscience et d^un
devoir sacri^ its plaidkrent la cause de Vim-
TnaniUy en javeur des victimes d'une eivtre-
prise ausst irr^chie que coupable (The
monarchs, decided to suppress the princi-
ple of revolt, in whatever place or under
^ whatever form it might appear, hastened
to condemn it >vith equal and unanimous
disapprobation. But, open at the same
time to the voice of their conscience and
of a sacred duty, they have pleaded the
cause of humani^ in favor or the victims
of an undertaking as inconsiderate as

guilty). The dissensions in Greece, it
cannot be denied, were a strong objection
to the acknowledgment of Greek inde-
pendence. Colocotroni refused the cen-
tral government admisaon into Napoli di
Romania, and deliberated, with other am-
bitious capitani in Tripolizza^ on a divis-
ion of the Morea into hereditary princi-
palities.* The central government, how-
ever, succeeded in preventing the dangers
of a civil war, and called a second national
assembly at Astro, in Januaiy, 1823. In
regard to the election of deputies, the laws
of Nov. 21 and Dec. 3, 1822, had akeady
established two divifflons, that of ^eronXts
or elders, for from 10 to 50 famihes, and
that of senators according to eparchies.
Mavrocordato principally contriouted to
the restoration of concord, at the time
when the declaration of the congress of
Verona was communicated by the British
embos^ at Constantinople to this efiect :
**The Greeks must submit to their lawful
sovereign the sultan." At the same time,
information was received of n new Tuik-
ish expedition, destined to attack theMorea
by land and sea. The number of deputies
was now increasing at Astro ; even Ulys-
ses and other capitani repaired thither,
with their bands, from Tripolizza; so
that the national assembly at Astro con-
fiisted of 100 deputies, at the opening of its
sesnons (March 14). Mavromicbalis was
elected president ; Theodore Negris, sec-
retary. Even Colocotroni submitted to
the asseniibly. The members of the legis-
lative and executive councils were then
elected. Condurioti of Hydra was cho-
sen preddeht of the former; Petro Mavro-
raichalis, bey of Maina, of the latter.
Both bodies determined to raise from
40,000,000 to 50,000,000 of piastres for

^ It has been oiie of the causes of the misfor-
tunes of the Greeks, that the capitani, ^ith little
in view but their own interest, nave been, gen-
erally speaking, the only leaders who coincided
in spirit and fcclings.with the great body of tho
people. The ollior leading men, educated abroad,
and imbued with foreign opinions, have, in many
cases, shown great isnorance of the state anci
character of the people with whom they acted.
The abortive trials to establish a form of govern-
ment for Greece, at different times, have given
proof of this. The ill success of these trmls.
However, has been, in no small degree, owii^ to a
want of sound political elements in the people.
The same cause has given rise to' the dimculties
which have so oAen obstructed the establishment
of wise and settled forms of government in France
and South America. On llie other hand, the
orderly character of the people in the North Amer-
ican colonies, and theiV long exercise, in fact, of
the rights of freemen, gave success to their ex-
periment when they instituted an independeui
govermnent.

GREECE, REVOLUTION OF MODERN.

the purpose of levying & force of 50,000
lucDy and equippuig 100 large men-of-war.
The principles of the constituent resohi-
tions of Epidaurus were adopted for all
Greece, with some uninq)ortant modifica-
tions, and eparchs substituted for provin-
cial goyemmentB. The French military
code was adopted, with some changes,
and the preparation of a new criminal
code decreed. The aasen^bly then pro-
claimed the new constitution of Astro
(April 23, 1823), and dissolved, aiier the
nationaJ government established by it hod
cone into operation at Tripolizza (April
SO). Thus order was, in some degree,
restored, but not concord among the capi-
tani. This produced several changes of the
ministeis and the presidents of the two
councils. Mavrocordato was made presi-
dent, and Colocotroni vice-president, and
Demetrius Ypnlanti was removed, as un-
qualified for public afiSiiis. The secre-
tary Negiis, also, received his discharge.
Tlie Greeks continued united only in
refiising an amnesty, and such an inde-
pendence as that of Moldavia and Wala-
chia, offered to them by British agents.
The British policy now permitted at least
an indirect support of the cause of Greece,
fi^m Mahaand the Ionian Islands. The
French cabinet no longer attempted to
pierent Frenchmen from participating in
the caose of the Greeks. But no power
was willing to declare itself openly in their
favor, before Russia had manifested her
sentiments. The emperor Alexander had
faKoken off direct diplomatic relations with
the Porte. He insisted upon the en-
tire evacuation of Moldavia and Wala-
cfaia.

The e\'«:nt8 of the year 1823 were not
less bloody ^d confused than those of the
preceding yea^^ Whilst, in Thessaly and
Eprus, mere wa^ a suspension of arms ;
and the Greek fiag (''ight blue and white
hfxrizontal stripes) comnianded the sea,
the populace in Constantinople manifested
their rage by setting fire to different parts
of the city, because they were prevented
fiom committiiig massacres. Afarch 1,
1S23, an attempt was made to pillage and
bum the Greek suburbs; but the wind
drove the flames against the Turkish
quarters. Four times the sea of fire rolled
against the Greek quarters, and four times
a fi!esh north wind rolled it back against
the Tuiitish houses. Pera was saved;
but 6000 Turkish houses, part of the can-
non foundenr (Tophana), and part of the
naval arsenal, were reduced to ashes. The
Muflsulmans finally cried out, "€rod is
widi the Giaours." The grand-viuer

Abdullah was dismissed in consequence
of this conflagFaticuQ, and Ali Bey, a pacha
hostile to the janizaries, succeeded him.
These troops, therefore, meditated ven-
geance ; and, July 13, a new fire Inoke out,
which consumed 1500 private houses, and
three frigates. Order was, however, re-
stored by severe measures; more &vor-
able nevfrs arrived fix>m Asia; and the
sultan resolved on a general war of exter-
mination against the Greeks, on account
of which he called all Mussulmans, from
15 to 60 years, to arms. On the other
hand, Greece endeavored to organize an
army and a financial system. The dis-
solved battalion of Philhelleiusts became
the nucleus of the first Greek regiment
Mavrocordato was placed at the head of
the land forces. The minister of die ma-
rine (Orlandi, a Hydriot) organized the
navy, which consisted, m 1823, of 403
sail, vrith cannon. The largest (the Her-
cules) carried 26 ffuns. The rich Hydri-
ot Miaulis was admiral; Manuel Turn-
basis of Hydra, George Demitracci of
Spezzia, and Nicolas Apoistolos of Ipsara,
vice-adxnirals. A Greek order, of merit
(a light blue cross) was established. The
financial department met with sreat diffi-
culties every where, particukuny on the
islands. The disputes of the government
with the Hydriot navarchs,on the sub-
ject of arrears of pa^ and the booty of Na-
Sili, which the capitani were unwilling to
vide with the isCuiderB, had a bad effect
on the naval operations. The Greek fleet,
ho wever^sained a victory (March 22, 1823)
over an £§;yptian flotilla destined for Can-
dia ; but it was unable to prevent the land-
ing of Turkish troops; and the daring
expeditions of the Ipsariots and Samiots
on the coast of Asia Minor were without
important results. When the fleet of the
capudan pacha finally appeared, in June,
the Greek ships retireid, and supplied Ca-
risto and Negropont in Eubcea, Patras,
Coron and M^on in the Morea, and Le-
paiito, with fiesh troops and provisions.
The land forces of the Greeks were now
systenuticaUy distributed. Mavrocordato
was at the head of the whole. He had
prevented the trial of Colocotroni, who was
accused of treachery, and won over that
capitano by promotmg his election to the
vice-presidency and to the post of second in
command. Of the forces, the command
in chief in Western Hellas was given to
the Suliot Marco Botzaris; in Eastern
Hellas Ulysses commanded. The Suliots
were fiuthful and trusty allies. The Alba-
nian tribes, who had caused the defeat of
Omer Vrione by their desertion of hin^

QREliCE, REVOLUTION OF MODERN.

were less to be relied on. These tribes
mM themselyes to the highest bidder;
some bands accepted the offen of the
pacha of Scutari, who marched against
the Greeks in 18^ The insuirection of
the inhabitants of Eastern Thessaly had
obliged Mehemed Pacha (the murderer of
Ali), the second successor of the seraskier
Khun^d, who had collected the ruins
of Khurshid's army after the defeat at La-
rissa, to retreat fit>m the southern port of
Thessaly. In his rear, Saloniki and Seres
were threatened by the Greek officer Dia-
mantis, who had taken possession of the
psninsula of Cassandra (Feb. 23, 1823).
But the troops from Rumelja soon drove
him back. The army under the seras-
kier of Rumelia (25,000 strong), after five
months' preparation, finally opened the
campaign, in June, fit>m Larissa. It ad-
vanced with caution, in two masses, to-
wards Livadio. But the Greeks, tmder
Mavromichalis and Mavrocordato, instead
of waiting for them behind the isthmus,
took a {jositran near Megoio, and Ooloco-
troni received a command over the fbrces
of UlvBses and Niketas, with whose bands
ihe Peloponneflian army united near Pla-
tteo. From this place they advanced
ogainst the enemy, towards the end of
June. After some nffhting in detail, Ulys-
ses defeated one of the main bodies of die
Tnrks, under Mehemet Pacha, at Ther-
mopy Lb. He then joined the army under
Oolocotroni, who attacked (July 7) the
Tuikish camp near the monosterv of St
Luke (between the cities of Thebes and
Livadia), which was captured by Ulysses
and Niketas, after a bloody fight The
Turks retreated with great loss. Ulysses
overtook them (July 17), ond routed them
in the plains of Cheronea. But the seras-
kier collected new forces, and advanced
again, whilst, at the same time, Jussuf and
Omer Vrione, supported by the fleet of the
capudan pacha, off Patros, were destined
to odvonce on Missolonffhi,and the pacha
of Scutari was to enter Sie Morea through
Western Greece, by Vrachori, Vonitza and
Salona. But the attack of tlie seraskier
on Volos and the peninsula of Tricon
ftiled ; JussufS march was delayed by the
desertion of 8000 Albanians, and the van-
guard of the pacha of Scutari fwho, with
90,000 men, partly Albonians, had occu-
pied the heights of Agrapha, and threat-
ened iGtolia) was surprised at midnight
(Aug. 20, 1893), in the camo of Carpinissi,
bjr Marco Botzaria Whilst the moun-
taineers, ftom Thessaly and Epirus, at-
tacked the camp on four sides, on a signal
given by Botzoris, the breve commander

himself penetrated, with 500 Buliott, to
the tent of the pacha ; but, at the moment
of making the pacha of ]>elvino prisoner,
he received a mortal wound, and his
brother Constantine completed the victoiy.
The Turks lost all their ortiileiy and bag-
gage, and the dying Marco exchiimed, at
me moment of victoiy, *< Could a Suliot
leader die a nobler death ?^ The Alba-
nians of the pacha dispersed ; he himself
returned to Scutari, in cons^uence of the
desertion of the Montenegrins to the
Greeks. At the same time, the Turkisli
fleet, again having the plague on board,
left (Aug. 90) the gulf of Patras, and re-
turned to the Archipelago, avoided the
Greek islands, delivered Saloniki from its
blockade, and returned, in October, to the
Dardanelles, after a few indecisive en-
gagements with the Greeks. But bloody
Quarrels soon broke out between the Hy-
riots and Spezziots, relative to the divis-
ion of the booty taken from some vessels.
While Livadia and the Morea were threat-
ened, the inhabitaints of Athens had fled
to the island of Salamis ; but Gvouras still
maintained possession of the Acropolis.
The members of government, with the
deliberative council, were also at Salamis,
fiiom whence they returned to Argos in
November, 1823. Mavrocordato ccmduct-
ed a division of the Hydriot fleet to tiio
gulf of Leponto, in Novemb^, and com-
pelled the Barbery fleet, which was block-
ading Missolongiii, to withdrew. The
Acrocorinthus wos taken, in November of
the same year, by the Greeks, and the last
attack of Jussuf Pacha, supported bv Mus-
tapha Pacha, on AnatoHco and Missolonghi,
where Andreas Metaza commanded, en-
tirelv failed, in consequence of the defeat
of Mustapha in November, 1823. Mustapha
Pacha retreated to Yanina. The campaign
was finished; but the partisan warcontmued
in Thessaly and Epirus, and Greek ves-
sels advonced as for as the gulf of Smyr-
na. The Porte, though much exhausted,
still hod greater resource for the next
campaign (1824) than the Greeks. The
peace with Peraa (concluded July 28,
1823), and the voluntary submission of the
rebellious pacha of St Jean d'Acre, en-
abled the rorte to send into Greece the
troops from Asia, and those previouslv
stationed in Moldavia and Wakcliio, which
were now evacuated. In Constantinople,
the influence of the janizaries on the de-
crees of the divan had ceased By the

* Marco Botxaris, a Suliot, lerved in the
French amy^ reUiroed in 1890 to Epinis, where
Ali Pacha restored Soli to hira, that he might
" n against the Porte.

QREECE, REVOLUXION OF MODERN.

aj^poimmem of Galib Pacba as grand-
Tizier (the fifth since 1831), and of Sadik
as leis efiendi, in December, 1823, the
more moderate party obtained the ascen-
dency. On the other hand, the diasen-
siona among the Greeks daily increased.

A Rusman char^ (Tcffaires in Constan-
tinople, Mr. de Mmziaky, tried to restore,
in January, 1624, the connexions between
the cabinet of St Petersbui^ and the Porte,
which had been broken off since 1821.
The principal subject of negotiation was
the complete evacuation of me two prin-
cipalities of Walachia and Moldavia by
the Turkish troops, m conformity with
the treaties of Kuiuardgi, Jaasy and Bu-
charest. The British ambassador, lord
Strangfbrd, and the Austrian internuncio,
the baron von Ottenfels, supported tlie
demands of Russia. Lord Strangford was
treated with great regard by the rorte ; for
it vras owing to British influence that the
Porte had been able to conclude its last
treaty of peace with the court of Persia
(Jan. 28, 1824). But the support which
certain societies in England, and indi-
viduals, like lord Byron, had given the
Greeks^ by means of loans, by send-
ing arms, and by asrastance in person,
made the Porte indignant; and it re-
quired (April 9), that the British govern-
ment should forbid their subjects to take
any part in the affiiirs of the Greeks. In
the mean while, the British officers who
had fought under the Greek standard, hod
been recalled to England. The good un-
derstanding with Russia appeared still
more complete, when a great number of
neutral transport ships, Russian, Austrian
and othera, were hired by the capudan
micha, who sailed, April 28, out of the
Dardanelles to destroy Ipsara and Samoa.
At the same time. Dervish, pacha of
Widden, as commander-in-chief of the
Ottoman troops, received an order to en-
ter the Morea, whilst the pacha of Negro-
pont, on the coast of Attica, and Omer
Vrione (who was afterwards pacha of
Salooiki), were to open the campaign on
the west coast of Greece. The Forte had
succeeded, too, in inducing Alohammed
Ali, the viceroy of Egypt, to send from
his troops, which had Oeen trained in the
European discipline by French officers,
20,000 men, under the command of Ibra-
him Pacha, his son, besides a fleet with
tran^KHt sldps, consistiug of hired Rus-
sian, Austrian, Spanish and Italian vessels,
to assist the gnuid-signior in reducing the
Greeks to submission. A fire in Cairo
delayed, for some months, the departure uf
this expedition. In the mean time, after

the glorious issue of the oampaigns of 1893,
dissensions had broken out anew in Gt^oeee. <
The party of Mavrocordato, which had
taken the place of the heads of the /felot-
niay was composed of Hvdriot merchants,
and the most enlightened men of the na-
tion. It endeavored to establish an oixlerly
and legal odministration, and to regulate
the finances. Mavrocordato was presi-
dent of the legislative body ; but, retiring
from the military party, which had the
preponderance in the Morea, he went
towards Western Greece. The hoods of
thcu miMtary parw, the ci^itani, appeared
to wish to take the places of the former
Turkish pachas, and oppressors of the
country. One of the most eminent of this
party was Oolocotroni, who, through the
&me of his victories (in 1822), was the
most powerful in the executive council.
From Tripolizza, in the midst of the pen-
insula, his jfiiction extended itself on all
sides. Panes, his son, commanded at
Nauplia (Napoli di Romania! the seat of
govenuneut. The garrison of the Acroco-
rinthus consisted of the adherents of that
bold, proud and rich general After Oo-
locotroni, came Mavromichalis, formerly
bev of the Mainots, and now the nomi-
nal president of the executive council.
Ne^ris, the former minister of foreign
afuirs, had joined Ulysses, who main-
tained himself in Athens and Eastern
Greece, almost independently of the cen-
tral govemmenu These capitani raised,
without regard to rules and orders, all
that they wanted for themselves and dieir
soldiers; so that only in the marine at
Hydra, and in Westem Greece, where
Mavrocordato commanded, a well ordered
government was maintained. In Misso-
longhi, lord Byron was taking an active
part. He and colonel Stanhope organ-
ized the ardllery. Byron himself estab-
lished schools and printing-offices. In the
mean time, the legislative senate at Kranidi
(on the eastern shore of the gulf of Ai^-
lis) endeavored to check the arbitrary
proceedings of the executive council.
The report of the causes of complaint
against the president, Mavromichalis, and
other counsellors (Dec. 31, 1823^ disclosed
such striking instances of arbitrary and
selfish conduct, that the senate dissolved
the existing executive council, and named,
as the members of the new, the Hydriot
George Conduriotti as president, and the
Spezziot Panajotis Botassis as vice-presi-
dent Both were good patriots, and the
most influential men of their islands, but
without disdnguiahed talents Jolm Co-
letti was the third, and Nicholas Londos

GREECE, REVOLUTION OF MODERN.

the fourth member. The fifth place,
which AnagDoetis Spiliotakis received af-
terward^ had been destined for Coloco-
troni, who, notwithstanding lord Byron's
mediation, jiersisted in refusing to recog-
nise the senate and tlie executive council.
The latter now declared Najpioli di Roma^
nia (March 14, 1824) the capital of Greece,
and the seat of the central government.
But Panos closed the sates. He was
therefore treated as a rebelj and Napoli
invested by sea and laud. The garrison of
the Acrocorinthns and several capitapi (Ni-
ketas and others) surrendered to the gov-
ernment. Colocotroni himself evacuated
Tripolizza (April 15). Hereupon the sen-
ate and (May 22) the executive govern-
ment took Argos for their place of session.
At length, the acceasion or the garrison of
the chief fott of Napoli to the cause of the
government, occasioned the conclusion of
a treaty with Colocotroni, who submitted
^vith all his followers, under the security
of a general amnesty. Panos now gave
up Napoli and the citadel Palamedes (19th
or June), to which the senate and the gov-
ernment immediately transferred them-
selves. A general amnesty terminated the
' civil war. During this time, tlie Greeks
in Western Greece were laboring to im-
prove the fortifications of Anatouco, and
of Missolonghi, the bulwark of Pelopon-
nesus. A conspiracy was discovered in
^is town to deliver up the place to the
pacha Jussuf. The Suliots began to
commit great excesses, being excessively
discontented with lord Byron's new regu-
lations, and with the influence of foreign-
ers in general. A great number of them
were sent out of the place. These, nnder
the guidance of a certain Karaiskaki, took
possession (April 12) of the fort Wassiladi.
The people took no port in this rebellion ;
and a body of troops, under the command
of Botzaris, Stumaris and Trokos, defeated
the insurgents, and recovered Wassiladi ;
upon which the traitore fled to Omer Vri-
one. This insurrection firustiated the
siege of Lepanto, which had been under-
taken. Lord Byron's health jsuflei^d fix)m
these events, and he died after a sioltness
often days (April 19, 1824). Easter, gen-
erally a season of festivity, was solem-
nized by a general mourning for 21 days;
The heart of the poet remains in Misso-
longhi, and his child was adopted as a
daughter of Greece. The campaign was
now to begin. The Greeks were divided
among themselves. Their connexion with
England was broken off, and the lord
high commissioner of tlie Ionian Islands
did not permit tlie money loaned to be

deposited for any time in Zante. The
Turkish eommander also met with great
obstacles: the pacha of Saloniki would
not obey ; the pachas of Scodra and Yani-
na, exhausted by their late losses, were
not able to join him immediately with
fresh troops. He remained, therefore, for
more than a month, inactive at Larissa.
The capudan pacha attempted a landing
on the iriand of Skiathos, in which he
ftiiled ; but he threw some thousand jani-
zaries into the fortress of Neeropont, where
Ulysses and the distingui^ed Diamantis
had defeated the Turks several times in
the winter. Dervish now first entered
the field. Pacha Bekir,who commanded
under him, was beaten ( Jime 1| near Zei-
tuni, by Ulysses and Niketas. But another
corps joined the Turks in Negropont,and
tbok possession of the province of Attica.
Gouras, an officer under the command of
Ulysses, wbb obliged to retuni to the cita-
del of Athens. At the same time, Ish-
mael GHbralter, admiral of the Egyptian
fleet, had subdued Candia. The gov-
ernor, Tumbesis, saved only a few of the
old men, women and children, and sent
diem to Hydra. Some bands of Can-
diots scattered themselves among the
mountains. Ishmael Gibralter then ttn-
dettook the attack of the island of Kassos.
The brave inhabitants drove back the
enemy, June 8 ; but on the 10th they were
attacked by a greater force, at a diflferent
point of the island, where they had not
expected it Their obstinate resistance
ended in tiieir destruction. The enemy
carried away immense booty. Whilst this
was iiappeninff, Khosru, the capudan
pacha, was making preparations, on the
island of Mitylene, for an attack on Ip-
sara and Samoa. 20,000 soldiers fix>m
Asia, destined for the invasion, encamped
on the coast of Smyrna, where, being un-
furnished*' with supplies, they committed
the greatest ravages, and murdered tlie
defenceless Greeks. The small but strong-
ly fortified rocky island of Ijisara had made
itself formidable to the Porte by the num-
ber of its vessels and fireships, in winch
the most daring of the islanders carried
terror and destruction into the I)arda>
nelles. Khosru possessed exact informa-
tion of the fortifications of the island . Ish-
mael Pliassa, nephew of the well known
Ali Pacha of Yanino, commanded under
him 14,000^ choice troops, mostly Albani-
ans, But * before Khosru invaded die
island, he offered pardon and protection
to the Ipsariots three times. They reject-
ed all his proposals. 5000 Greeks and
Albanians took posseenon of the most ini-

GREECE, REVOLUTION OP MODERN.

portant points; even the Women prepared
themselvee for the combat. Khosru left
the shores of Mitylene ear^ on July 3d,
with two ships of die line, six frigates^ ton
correttes, several briss and galliots, a great
number of newly-built gun-boats, and
more than 80 European transport-shins.
His fleet surrounded the island. The
inen-of-wtr began to fire upon the town
and the forts. Whilst the principal at-
tack appeared to be made here, a landing
was effected on the opposite coast, upon a
sandy point of land, where an Albanese
betttlion, under the tndtor Goda, deserted
the battery, after a short resistance. The
Turks took by storm the heights back of
the city. They were not able to maintain
themselves there. The primates and
ephori had the old men, women and chil-
dren put on board the vessels in the har-
bor. Some vessels sunk, others were
taken by the Turks. Some fugitives were
received by two French frigates ; the rest
eai^ped, tmder the guidance of Apostolis,
to Hydra. In the mean time, the cl^ was
attacked on all rades ; the Greeks K>ught
fi^m street to street, from house to house ;
the work of destrucdon was kept up
through the whole night On the morn-
ing of July 4, they held only two small
ft»rtB and the convent of St. Nicholas.
After a hard struffgle, these brave men
resolved to die all together in fheir last
fort, Tabia. While the Turks were storm-
ine the walls, they set fire to the mine,
vraich had been prepared ; the earth shook,
and Ipsara became the grave of its own
heroes and the conquerors. This blow
opened the eyes of the Greeks. The
people and the authorities rose up for
united resistance. Hydm and Spezzia
manned their ships. Ipsara was retaken
by the brave Miaulis (July 15)^ and the
shine there saved. The enemy was re-
pulsed by inferior forces at Samoe, Cos
and Chioe ; he suf&red some loss at Can-
dia, and the Greeks opposed him at St.Ru-
mili,Ti7piti,MirabeiroandLassidl. Equal
snceess attended the Greeks upon the
main land. Gouras conquered the barba-
rians at Marathon. The Turkish psneral-
in-cbief, Dervish Pacha, beaten m July,
August and September, at Gravia, at Am-
}^ni»in the province of Phocis, retreated,
with the loss of his baggage, to Laziiea.
His plan of joining Omer Vrione, at Salo-
na, vras thus whol^ defeated. In Westem
Greece, Mavrocordato's vigorous meas-
ures firustrated all the plans of the bold
and artful Omer Vrione, who had invaded,
fi>r the third time, Acaroania and iGtolia.
The (jkeeks then undertook the offensive,

and pressed upon Arta. In tlie mean
tiin6, the authorities at Nauplia made loud
complaints against the agents of some
Christian powers in the Archipelago, who
kindled the flame of discord, and checked
the improvement of the internal adminis-
tration. Nevertheless, order was con-
stantly increasing in the Grecian govern-
ment The taxes were raised according
to a just distribution, and the public lands
regularly leased. The public credit was
confirmed by a loan. Trade again re-
vived, and tlie Greek flag was to be seen
in Ancona, Leghorn, Marseilles, and even
on the banks of the Thames. The gov-
ernment began again to omnize an avmy
according to the rules of European disci-
pline. The French military code was
introduced in Greece. The administra-
tion of justice received a fixed character.
A lower court of justice and a court
of appeals were held at Missolonghi.
The discussions before the courts were
public. Freedom of the .press was every
where allowed. Four newspapers ap-
peared twice a week: — ^in Missolonghi,
the Grecian Chronicle and the Telegraph ;
at Hydra, the Friend of Law (the oflScial
paper) ; and at Athena, the t^phemerides.
Education was also provided for. In the
mean time, the second part of the bloody
campaign began. The Egyptian fleet set
sail fiiom Alexandria, Julv 19, comprising
9 frigateS) 14 corvettes, 40 brigs and galli-
ots, and 240 transports, with 18,000 land
forces. Ibrahim Pacha was to bring re-
inibreements to Candia, and then invade
the Morea. The Greek sovemment had
put themselves in a hostile position with
regard to the European poweist llie
secretary of state, Rhodios, in a letter to
Canning, declined the proposal of a treaty
with the Porte. On the other hand, Eng-
land, through their lord hi^ commissioner
of the Ionian Islands, air Frederic Adam,
forced the Greek government to revoke
(September 15) the "proclanuition issued
June 7, in which they treated the Euro-
pean transports employed by the enemy,
not as neutral, but hostile vessels. The
Greek government issued a manifesto, in
which they complained greatly of the
shamefiil avarice of the Christian mer-
chants, yrho violated so openly the law of
neutrali^, m fiivor of the Turks. The
English government then acknowledged
the right of blockade, property exercised
b^ the Greek government, and the Aus-
trian internuncio issued a command to the
consuls of his ffovemment to prevent all
letting out of ships contraiy to the neu-
trality. Some UhristiiBm captains, how-

GREEGS, REVOLUTION OF MODERN.

ever, partioularly the Frencli, did sub-
sequently let their ehiiw to the Egyp-
tians, and carried Christian captives n^m
Greece as slaves to Africa — a proceedins
which was denounced in the French
chamber of peers (18261 by Chateaubri-
fmd, and then profajbitea by law. Mean-
while, the Egyptian and the Turkish £eet
united in the gulf of Bodroun (Septem-
ber 4), and some battles were now rought
with the Greek fleet The batde at Naxos
(September 10| lasted the whole day. It
was, perhaps, tne first durinff the war that
deserved the name of a naval engagement
The intrepid Kai^aris blew up, with his
fire-ships, an Esyi^n frigate of 44 guns,
and a brig. The Greeks lost ten small
ahips. At length, the Ottoman fleet
broke off tlie engagement, and retired to
Mitylene, with Uie loss of several trans-
port-ships. Khosru then turned back to
Constantinople, with 15 sail, and Ibrahim
Pacha, with the rest of the fleet, to the
gulf of Bodroun. He supplied the islands
anew ^vith troops and provisions, particu-
lariy Candia, which his father alr^y re-

rled as apart of his viceroyalw. Miau-
soon after attacked him on Candia.
Ibrahim lost a frigate, 10 small vessels,
and 15 transport-sliips. Weakened by
the plague, which had ai^)eared on board
the ships, he drew back to the harbor of
Rhodes, where the weU known admiral
Ishmael Gibndter died. His plan of at-
tacking the Morea wns frustrated for this
year. Ailer such exertions on the part of
the Greek fleet, the insolent ambition of
the mUitaiy faction once more disturbed
the harmony of the peninsula. When
the elections for the third term of the
government began, in October, the execu-
tiye council at Napoli di Romania con-
sisted of 63 members. Mavrocordato re-
signed his place as president of the senate,
and Panuzzo Notaras became his succes-
sor. Colocotroni and his followers were
disappointed in the choice of the execu-
tive counciL The former membeis were
reelected. But unfortunate events checked
the activity of the government A con-
tagious fever broke out in Napoli, of
which the vice-president, Botassis^ and
Manuel Tumbasis, died* The presadeDt,
Conduriotti, went, therefore, to Hydra.
At the same time, a civil war arose (No-
vember, 1824). Colocotroni had openly
declared against the reelection of the ex-
ecutive council, and had drawn the mili-
tary commanders to his side. The gener-
als KanellaSjPapaganopulos, Andreas Lon-
dos and Notarapinos immediately left the
siege of Patras, which had been intrusted

to them. Their troops dispersed. They,
with their followens, placed themselves
under the insui^nt standard at Tripo-
lizza, where Panes Colocotroni took the
command of them. Conduriotti then
turned back to Napoli di Romania (De-
cember 9), and summoned Gouras, Tassos
and other commanders, from Attica t6
Corinth. Coletti received the chief com-
mand ; Christoe and Maurogeni appear-
ed before Tripolizza. The rebels were
beaten in several batdes. Panes Coloco-
troni fell, and his followers were dis-
persed. The well knovm Amazon Bobo-
lina, a follower of Colocoti^ni, fell bv the
dagger of a Greek, as it is said, the lover
of her daughter, whose hand she had
refused him. Ulysses, who had formed a
secret union with the Tuiks at Negropont,
was defeated by Gouras, taken prisoner,
and confined in a tower, built by himself
for the defence of Athens. In attempting
to escape fit>m it, he fell to the bottom,
and was killed. Colocotroni, the ftther,
saw himself deserted by all, and surren-
dered in December, 1824. The other
leaders of the rebellion fled to the Ionian
Islands. Some surrendered ; others were
seized and (together with the elder Coloco-
troni) carried to a convent, where tliey
were judged by a commission. The Mainot
bey rietro Mavromichalis was acquitted.
The government now labored to secure
the obedience of the armies by law, and
made preparations to invest Patras, Ma-
don and Coron anew. Omer Vrione
entered into a negotiation viritli the Greeks^
but it was broken ofif (1825^ and he re-
ceived the pachalic of Saloniki. The dte-
astrous issue of the campaisn of 1824, by
sea and land, excited in Constantinople
again the hatred and anger of the fac-
tious. Hussein Aga, commander q£ the
troops of the Bosphorus, the a^ of the
janizaries, the mufti, and Janib Eflfendi (a
man 76 yean of age, the most obsti-
nate follower of the old Ottoman policy),
united for the ruin of the grand-vizier.
This fiiction would permit no und of inter-
vention of the Christian powers in die
internal af&irs of the Porte, and demanded
loudly that, before the Porte evacuated the
two principalities, Rusna should restore
the fortresses in Asia. The grand-signior
saw himself obliged ta dismiss the grand-
vizier, GhaUb Pacha, who was universally
esteemed, althoush not very enei|;etic.
His successor, Meliemet Selim, pacha of
Silistria, was a creature of Janib Effendi.
Hitherto, the Ekiglisli envoy had urged
the evacuation of the principalities ; but,
being put off continually with promises,

tJREECE, REVOLUTION OF MODBRN.

he at last left Coostaotiiiople (Oct 18,
1824V, haviDjjr shortly before effected the
conclusion of a treaty between the Porte
and the king of Sardinia, and obtained
some commercial privileges. He went,
the following year, as Britifidi minister to
Petersbuig. The Porte felt constantly
more sensibly the consequences of the
war. It lost the revenue wnich had come
irom the provinces in rebellion. The
tribute which the Peloponnesus alone
used to pay, amounted yearly to 35,000,000
Turkish piastres. The grand-vizier de-
termined to lay an extraordinary tax of
13,000,000 piastres upon Moldavia and
Walacfaia, as a compensation for the oc-
cupation of the same since 1821. Most
of the boyards withdrew themselves by
flight In vain the hospodars represented
the unhappy condition of the provinces,
which could hardly play the custoroarv
tribute. The Turkish commanders took
away all the money and other valuables
which they found in the public treasuries
or among the possessions of the rich.
Some Turkish troops now withdrew Grom
the provinces, ana Minziacky, who ap-
peared as the Russian a^nt, aimounced
the approach of a Russian ambassador,
the marquis de Ribeaupierre, with fidl
powers; but new troops soon marched
again into the principalities ; for more than
100,000 Russian soldiers remained on the
frontiera, ready for instant service. The
campaign of 1825 was opened in the
Morea by the landing of Ibrahim Pachti.
Reschid Pacha besieged Mii»olonghi at
the same tim6, and 3ie capudan pacha
^dided both by his fleet. While these
dangeis threatened Greece, her ruin was
accelerated by the capitani. Ibrahim
Pacha, before mentioned, was pennitted
to land (Feb. 22, 1825), with 4500 men, be-
tween Coron andModon,and was strength-
ened in the beginning of Mareh, so that
Ins force amounted to 12,000 men. Hisar-
my,owing to thehr European tacticB,French
leaden, Sie use of bayonets, and a disci-
plined davalry, was far more to be dread-
ed than the undisciplined host of Turks.
Thus Ibrahim began the siege of Navarino,
the key of the interior of the Peloponnesus.
In vain Miaulis attacked with his fleet
that of the enemy, on the night of the
I2th of May, when he burned an Egyp-
tian frigate, two corvettes, three brigs and
many transport-ships. In vain Mavrocor-
datodid every thing, by personal ex|K>sure,
to animate the courage of the garrison of
Navarino, which was reduced to extremi-
ty. Conduriotti found no obedience as he
approached for the relief of the place.

The inactivity of the capitani, who would
give no aid to the Hydnots and the gov-
ernment, was the cause of the capitulation
of Navarino ; after which Ibrahim pressed
on, without resistance, to Tripotizza. In
this danger, the government saw them-
selves compelled to pardon the old Coloco-
troni, and, afler receivuig a solemn prom-
ise of fidelity from him, to give him the
command of the Peloponnesus, ^bia
happened in the last of May, 1825. In
the mean time, Reschid Pacha fon^ his
way into Acamania and iEtolia, after he
had beaten the (Greeks at Salona. April
22, the third siege of Missolonghi and
Anatolico began. The capudan pacha
did not arrive sufficiently soon to support
the atuick on the side of the sea. He lost
several ships in May, near capo dH^ro,
in an engagement with the Greek admii^
Sactouri, and reached Modon at the end
of this month. Ibrahim had already
taken Calamata, and occupied TripoKzza,
which the Greeks, in their retreat, sel
on fire. He pressed on, destroying every
things and reached even Argos. Napoli
di Romania itself was threatened by him.
But, after the battle of the mills, at the
distance of two leagues from the capital, he
was obliged to draw back to Tripotizza, in
the midst of repeated attacks from Coioco-
tronl's army. This continued to be the
centre of his enterprises. Not one Greek
villape obeyed his command to submit and
receive his protection^ so that he laid waste
every thing, put to death the men, and sent
the women and children as slaves to
Egypt In the defence of MiflBokMigh^
the spirit of the Greeks appeared more
clearly than ever. The gamson refused
every exhortation to surrender. Noto
Botzaris stood first among the brave. The
Turks, with 35,000 hmd forces and 4000
sea forces, were wholly defeated (Aug. 2,
1825), after a contest which lasted seveial
days. The Turks lost 9000 men. Dur-
ing the struggle, Miauhs arrived, burned
several Turkish ships, and forced the fleet
to retire. The siege was raised Oct. 12,
1825, four months and a half after the
opening of the trenches. Ibrahim Pacha
spread more and more widely the teiror
of his arms. The government found it-
self in great danger. It had lost, almost
entirely, the confidence of the auxiliaiy
societies, even in England, l)ecause the
money fixim the English loan had not
been properly laid out. The English
party then exercised much influence over
the Greek government, through their sec-
retary of state, Mavrocordato ; and, after
an interview with the British commo-

GREECE, REVOLUTION OF MODERN.

dore (HaiiiiIton)» they detemmied to throw
themselves on the protection of England.
But before the Greek deputy arrived in
London, the British govemmeut (Sept 30,
1^25) issued a decided declaration of neu-
trally. The whole state of European
politics forbade any single power m>m
promising direct intervention. Yet the
English government permitted their con-
sul at Alexandria to forbid Britisli sliips to
carry anmiunition from Egypt to Greece
for the assistance of the pachas. England
even seemed to recognise the right of
search on the part of the Greeks. The
English declaration of neutrality appeased
the divan, and the neW Euglisu ambassa-
dor (Stratford Canning) set out, at last,
upon a journey to Constantinople; but he
stopped a long time on the way, and had
an interview (Januaiy, 1826) \nth Mavro-
cordato, and other Greek statesmen, at
Hydra, in order to inform himself of the
general state of affairs. He then went
to Smvma, and sailed from that place
through the Dardanelles (Januaiy 15), and
arrived at Constantinople in the last of
Febniaiy. About this time (March, 1826),
the duke of Wellington, as envoy extraor-
dinary ai St Peterwur^, and lord Strang-
ford, then resident minister there (who
had formerly been minister to Constanti-
nople), discussed the aficurs of Greece
with the Russian cabinet ; for, at the
end of the year 1825, the idea of restoring
independence to the Greek states seemed
to be gaining strengdi in the principal Eu-
ropean cabinets. The unsuccessful issue
orthe Turkish-Egyptian campaign, begun
under such fevorable auspices, contrib-
uted much to this. The capudan pacha
liad received the command of the Egyp-
tian fleet at the end of August, m Alexan-
dria, where the brave Kanaris (August 10|
had, with three fire-ships, in vain forcea
his way into the harbor, with the inten-
tion of burning the Egyptian fleet; the
nacha had also landed friesh troops at
Navarino (Auffust 5) ; he had afterwards
directed his enbrts against MiB8olonghi,in
order to invest this place on the sea side.
Reschid Pacha thus began, in connexi<m
with Ibrahim, a winter campaign. Yet
this did not eflect any thing decisive.
The affiiirs of Greece appeared to be
hastening to rum. The Greek fleet (73
men-of-war and 23 fire-ships) arrived too
late before Navarino. The government
had hardly 6000 men under arms. The
capitani squandered the money with which
they were to provide troops. General
Roche, manager of the French committee
for the assistance of the Greeks, worked

ly and secretly against the measures
of the English party, which had the upper
hand in the government The members
of the senate and of the executive council
had no confidence in each other. The sec-
retary of state, Mavrocordato, who labored,
with litde aid but that of his own foresight
and prudence, to maintain order, was, for
this reason, held in ill will ^ aU parties,
and had litde influence. The islanders
presented the last bulwark for the defence
of the Mocea, but were obliged also to
provide for their own security. Notwith-
standing this, their fleet succeeded in en-
tering MisBoIongfai (November 24), now
besieged for the fourth time, and in pro-
viding it with ammunition and provisions,
after the garrison had again repulsed an
attack m^e by sea and land. At the
same time, Gouras had advanced firom
Livadia to Saloua, and had expelled the
Tiu-ks from this important point (Novem-
ber 7), after which he attacked Reschid
Pacha's besieging army in the rear. A
body of troops, a&>, sent by Ibrahim Pa-
cha acainst Cforinth, was wholly destroyed
by Niketas. Hereupon the provisional
ffovemment, in December, 1825, called
for a voluntary contribution for the equip-
ment of a new naval force at Hydra, in
order to save Missolonghi. Strengthened
by the accession of these vessels, Miaulis
appeared, in January, 1826, in the waters
of Missolonghi, and successfully encoun-
tered the capudan pacha on the 8di of
this month. In the mean time, Reschid
and Ibrahim Pacha ^ere making arrange-
ments for a new siege. Ibrahim, as gov-
ernor of the Morea, had taken possession
of Patras with this view, after the brave
JusBuf Pacha had been appointed gov-
ernor of Aidin (Magnesia) in Natolia. The
capudan pacha appeared anew before
Missolongni The attempts of the Grecian
fleet to supply it again with provisions and
ammunition fiiiled; the capudan pacha
(Januaiy 27) summoned the authorities
of the town to surrender, if they did not
wish the place to be taken 1^ storm.
They refused the ofler. Soon after, there
was an engagement between the fleets,
in the gulf d* Patras, on the 27th and 28th
of January, when the Greek fire-sliips,
under Kanaris, destroyed a frigate and
many small vessels. The capudan pa-
cha soon gave up his command, after a
disagreement witn Ibrahim Pacha (who
had desired his recall by the divan), and
went by land from Yanina to Constanti-
nople. In consequence of that battle, tlie
Greeks succeeded in ftmiishing Misso-
longhi witli provisions and ammunidon«

Q&EECE, REVOLUTION OF MODERN.

sufficient for a few weeks. A later attempt
(February 12) was fhistrated by the Tiuk-
ifih-Egyptiaxi fleet CommiaBionetB were
sent, at the end of the year 1825, from the
divan to Greece. Hubbdi Bey and Ned-
Bchib Eflfendi (the agent of the viceroy
of Bgypt) entered the camp at Missolon-
ghi, to await the &11 of this place, and
to take their meamires according to circum*
8tance& Soon after, Reschid Pacha left
Acamania, and went to Livadia, in order to
occupy Ckiiuas and colonel Fabvier, who
had trained a body oflOOO Greeks in the Eu-
ropean discipline. Ibrahim then conduct-
ed ^ siege alone. He had 25,000 men,
among them about 9000 regular troops, and
48 cannon, bought in France, with which
Pierre Boyer (a former Bonapartist, and a
general well known bv bis cruelties com-
mitted in E^pt, St. Domingo and Spain)
bombarded Miaolongfai, from February 24.
Afker the bombardment had continued sev-
eral days, Ibrahim repeatedly offered the
commander of the fortress larse sums if he
would surrender the place. lie was wil-
ling even to permit the garnson to take
the cannon and all the movable property
with them. His proposals were rejected,
and the garrison prepared themselves for
death or victory. Ibrahim assaulted the
works of Missolonghi from February 28
to March 2. On this day, be attacked the
place by sea and land, but was whoily
repulsed, with the loss of 4000 men ; so
that MiBBolonffhi was, for the fifth time,
freed by Greek valor, when it had but a
few days* provision. Ibrahim now directed
his attacks against the outworks of Misso-
ionghi on the sea side. He forced bin
way, with fun-boata and floating-batteries,
into the u^^ns. March 9, 1826, he
stcHmed the litde island of Wassiladi, im-
portant as a fishing place, where 110 men
met the death of heroea A bomb, which
feu into the powder-room of the fort, and
kindled the ammunition, decided the fate
of this place. Then Ibrahim took, by
capituUition (March 13, 1826), the fortified
island of Anatolico, near Missplongbi, afier
he had stormed a fortified monastery,
called Kundro, which nrotected the island,
where a garrison of 400 men were cut to
pieeea. After these misfortunes, Misso-
kmgfai, the bulwark of the Pek)ponnesu8,
feUglorioudy,April 22,1826. The founda-
tion of an Egyptian- African military state
now seemed to be laid in Europe. Ibra-
him had removed the capudan pacha,
JufBuf Pacha and Reschid Pacha. He
was in poesessiou of Modon, Coron, Nava-
rino and Patras. If he should succeed in
gaining Napoli di Romania, he would be

master of the islands of the Archipelago.
The Porte would then be wholly unable
to keep its mighty satrap in subjection ;
and the viceroy of'^Egypt owed all this to
French artillery officers. Tliis danger
roused the attention of the governments
and people of Europe. The fate of Mis-
solonghi, of whose garrison 1800 men,
under Noto Botzaris and Kitzoe Isavellas,
cut theu- way to Salona and Athens, while
the rest buried themselves voluntarily un-
der the ruins of the place, excited eveiy
where the liveliest interest In France, this
interest was loudly and acdvel v expressed.
The Philanthropic Society to aid the Cause
of the Greeks, comprised among its mem-
bers Chateaubriand, Choi^eu^ Dolberg,
Matth. Dumas, Fitz-James, Lafitte, Laine,
Alex, de Lameth, Larochefoueault-Llan-
court, Cas. Peirier, Sebastiaui, Temaux,
Villemain, and many others. They had
contributed, in February, 60,000 francs, to
furnish supplies to MissolonghL They
obtained at Amsterdam, for the same ol^-
ject, dO,000 fiancs. The German Epard
contributed 12,000. The duke of Or-
leans aubecribed, several times, consider-
aUe sums. 40 ladies of hi^ rank made
contributions individually, and it was soon
the custom, in all the drawing-rooms m
Paris, for the lady of the house to make a
collection for the Greeks. Then followed
Germany. King Louis of Bavaria signed
the Greek subscription, and permitted bis
soldiers, with colonel Heidegger at their
head, to fight for the cause .'of Greece.
Poetry, too, lent her aid. New societies
for assisting the Greeks were formed;
for example, in Soxonv. All cooperated
with the noble Eynard. The Greek or-
phans were educated in Germany, Swit-
zerland and France. Thus, at last, when
the voice of lamentation was loudest in the
land, deliverance was slowly approaching
the Greeks. Wellington hod, by Can-
ning's order, subscribed at Petersburg
(April 4, 1826) the protocol which pro-
vided for the interrorcnce of the three
great powers in favor of the Greeks. The
emperor of Russia (q. v.) wished first to
arrange his own difficulties with the
Porte. This was done by the treaty of
Ackermon (Oct 6, 1826), and England
conduded with him and Prance, at Lon-
don (July 6, 1827), the treaty for the
pacification of Greece. Canning niished
to decide the Question between Greece
and Turkey without involving Russia in a
quarrel with the Porte, and thereby en-
danfpering the peace of Europe. His
deatn frustrated, in part, his noble design.
In the mean time, the Egyptian army

GKEECE, REVOLUTION OF MODERN

ovemm almost all parts of the Morea, and
chan^ it to a dsaopt, without obtaiDUig
submission firomaansle village. Fami-
fies from all parts of Greece pressed for-
ward together under the walls of Napoli
di Romania, and suffered all the horrors
of poverty and hunger, rather than en-
ter into a treaty with their Mussulman
oppressors. Despair drove many of these
unnappy people to piracy ; but most of the
corsaiis, in the Greek seas, were composed
of criminals and persons banished from
the Ionian Islands, Dalmatia and Italy,
who did not even spare the Greek flag.
New bands of warriors came forth from
the mountains, and Colocotroni several
times attacked Tripolizzo, which was de-
fended by 3000 Egvptians, under Soliman
B^ (La S^ve, the French renegade). The
influence of the climate and disease had
weakened the Egyptian anuy, yet Tripo-
lizza could not be taken, in the mean
time, an assembly of the pe<>FJOi convoked
at Megara, in Januaiy, 1826, proposed
several measures for tlie improvement of
the internal administration, particularly in
regard to the administration of jusdce
and the public revenue. At the same
time, an ezpediuon was fitted out for Ne-

Sopont, and support was rendered to
e vnsurrdctiou of the Greeks, which
had again broken out in Candia (1825),
where Carabuaa was taken by them.
Want of money and provisions, and the
dissensions between the commanders ; the
mistrust of the palikaris, who had been de-
ceived by their oflicers ; and the uigratitude
of the Greeks towards the Phlmellenes,
or foreign officers in their service, were the
causes Uiat nothing important was accom-
plished. Owing to these circumstances,
Athens, afler the army which should have
relieved it had fled m a dastardly man-
ner, capitulated to Reschid Pacha (June 7,
1827). In vam did lord Cochrane (who
had long been detained in England by the
defective construction of the steam ves-
sels, for which the Greeks had paid so
dear) at last arrive in Greece, and take the
chief command of the sea forces, while
ffeneral Church stood at the head of the
land forces. The Turks remained in
possession of the whole of Eastern and
Western lEIellas. The distress was in-
creased by a violent strunrle of parties in
Napoli di Romania itseK^ Here Grivas,
being in possession of the fortress called
Palainedes, began to cannonade the city,
in order to compel the payment of arrears.
The national ffovemment fled to the island
of iEgina. They now cast their eyes to
Rusna. They chose count Capo d'lstria

(<}» V.) ast their president This statesman
reedved fiis dischai^e from the Russian
service July 13, 182^ but could not entei
upon his high office until Jan. 22, 1828.
Meanwhile the ambassadors of the three
powers had, on the 16th of August, pre-
sented to tlie Poite die treaty concluded at
London, for the pacification of Grreece,
and waited for an answer till the .31st.
"Greece" tiiey said, *< shall govern itself,
but pay tribute to the Porte." Europe had
now more reason than ever to demand
fi:om the Porte the independence of
Greece, by which piracy in the Grecian
and Turush seas might be prevented;
an Afiican slave-holding ana piratical
state should not be allowed to rule the
beautifiil Archipelago of Europe; and
ovder might take die place or bloody
anarchy, which the Porte had neither sa-
fflusity nor strength to suppress. The
Greek govenunent immediately proclaim-
ed (August 25) an armistice in conformity
to the treaty of London. But the reis ef-
fondi rejected the intervention of the
three powers (August 31).. The Greeks
then commenced hostilities anew, and the
Turidah-Egvptian fleet (Sept. 9) entered
the bay of Navarino. A Bntish squadron
appeared in the bay on the 13th, under
admiral Codiington. To this a Freneh
squadron, under admiral Riffny, and a
Russian, under count Hevden, united
themselves on the 22d. They demand-
ed fix>m Ibrahim Pacha a cessation of
hostilities. He promised this, and went
out with part of his fleet, but was forced to
return into the bay. As he now continued
the devastations in the Morea, and gave
no answer to tiie complaints of the aomi-
rals, the three souadrons entered the bay)
where the Turkish-Egyptian fleet was
drawn up in order ofDattie. The first
shots were fired firom the Turkish side,
and killed two Englishmen. This was
the sign for a deadly contest (Oct. 20,
1827), in which Codrington neaiiy de-
stroyed the Turkish-Egyptian armaaa of
110 ships. One part was burned, another
driven on shore, and the rest disabled.
None struck their flaff. The news of the
victory was received with exultation in
Europe. An involuntary Suspension of
hostilities now ensued, during which the
depredations of pirates became more se-
rious. The admirals of Uie three united
squadrons, tiierefore, sent a warm remon-
strance to the legislative council of the
Greeks, and, after a number of capital
punishments, the safe^ of the seas was
restored, paiticulariy after the British had
destroyed tl^e head-quarters of the corsairs

GREECE; REVOLUTION OF MODERN.

(Kaiiibi]aB,uiC«ndia,Feb.28»18a8). Tbe
Greeks now remimed the oflfena^ againoi
the TinkB ; but their attempt upoD Scio
(where they vainly beeie^ the citadel,
from November, 1827, till Mareh 13, 1828)
was productive of nothing but injury to
the inbabitanta. Enraged at the battle of
Navarino,the Porte seized all the ships of
the Franks in Constantinople, detained
them from Nov. 2 to Nov. 19, and, on the
8th, stopped all communication with the
miuisteiB of the allied powers, till indem-
ni^caidou shoukl be made for the destruc-
ttoQ ijf the fleet At the same time, it
prepared for war. Since the aboUtion of
the janizaries (q. v.), in June, 1826, the
saltan had exerted himself, with great
zeal, to establish a new anny, train^ in
tbe European discipline. He conducted
their exercises in person, and used all the
means in his power to iniSame the passions
of the Moslems. For this reason, the
Russian ambassador, Ribeaupierre, left
Constantinople on the 4th of December,
1827 ; the French, Guilleminot, and the
British, Stratford Canning, on the 8tb.
UpcHi this tlie Forte adopted conciliatory
measures^ and sent a note, on the 15th, to
count Rib^upierre, who was detained in
tbe Bo^orus by contrary winds ; but the
hatti-sheriff addressed to the pachas (Dec.
20], demanding war, and heapmg many re-
proaches on Russia, forbade the idea that
the intentions of the Porte were j&iendly.
From all parts of the kingdom, the Ayans
were now called to Constantinoi^e (a
measure quite unusual), and discussed
with the Porte the preparations for war.
Aii the Moslems, from the age of 19 to 50,
were called to arm. On the 30th, Mah-
mood, on hearing that Persian Armenia
had fiJlen into the power of Russia, mis-
led by the artfbl representations of one
part of this intolenmt and disunited peo-
1^, caused all the Catholic Armenians to
be driven fiom Galata and Pera, so that
within 14 days (January, 1628) 16,000
penous were obliged to emigrate to Asia
in the most deplorable condition. lu tbe
mean time, the president of the Greeks,
count Capo d'Isdia, appointed the able
Tricoupi nis secretaiy of state, and estab-
liabed a high national council, called Pan-
hdUnum, at Napoli di Romania ; Feb. 4,
1836, took measures for instituting a na-
tional bank ; and, Feb. 14, put the milittuy
deportment on a new footing. The im-
prorements, however, could go on but
slowW. Without the assistance of France
aod KuBsiB, each of which lent the young
efiOOfiOO fiancs (as is represented
1 die Courier of Smyrna, or, as others

▼OL. VI. 4

state, paid a monthly subsidy of 500,000
fiancs), nothing couM have been effeeitod^
The attempts at pacification were fruits
less, because the Porte rejected every pro-
posal, and England appeared to disap*
prove the battle of Navarino. Codrinc-
ton was recalled, and Malcolm took hm
place. In this state of uncertainty, Ibra-
nim was allowed to send a number of
Greek ciqptives as slaves to Esypt In
March, 1^, the war between Ruraa and
Turkey broke out, and gave the PortMiU
occupation. In the mean time, the French
cabinet, in concurrence with die Rn gTiab ,
to cany into execution the treaty of Lob-
don, sent a body of troops to the M<nea,
whilst the British admiral Codrington
concluded a treaty with the viceroy <^
Egypt, at Alexandria (August 6), the
terms of which were that Ibrahim Pacha
should evacuate the Morea with his troops,
and set at liber^ his Greek prisoners.
Those Greeks who had been carried into
slaveiv in Ecypt, were to be freed or ran-
somed. 120O men, however, were to be
allowed to remain to jBnrrison the for-
tresses in the Morea. To force Ibrahim
to comply with these terms, the French
ffenersl Maisou arrived, on the 29th of
we following August, with 154 transport-
ships, in the Morea, in the bay of Coron,
near Petalidi. After an amicable* negoti-
ation, Ibrahim left Navarino, and sailed
i October 4) with about 21,000 men, whom
le carried with the wreck of the fleet to
Alexandria ; but he left garrisons in the
Messeman fortresses, amounting to 2500
men, consisting of Turics and Smptjans.
Maison occupied the town of 'Navarino
without opposition. He then attacked
the Turkish fortresses in Messenia. The
garrison made no resistance, and, on> the
other hand, the commanders would not
capitulate. The French, therefore, almost
without opposition, took possession of the
citadels or Navarino (October 6), of Modon
(on the 7th), and or Coron (on the 9th}.
The garriscMis were allowed free omasi
Patras, with 3000 men, capitulated (Octo-
ber 5) also, without resistance; and the
flags of the three powers, parties- to the
treaty of London, waved with the na-
tional flaff of Greece, on the >^Us of the
cities. Only the earrison of the casde of
the Morea, on the Little Dardanelles, north
of Patras, and opposite Lepanto, rq^eoted
the capitulati6n of Patras. They mur-
dered the pacha, and the French seneral
Schneider was obliged to make a breach
before the Turks surrendered at discreti<»
(October 90). The Turks were all now
carried to Smyma by the French admiral

GREECE, REVOLUTION OF MODERN.

Rigny. The commandeFB of Coron, Mo-
don and Patras, AchmetBey, Mustapha
and Jacobi, fled to France, to escape the
anger of the sultan. The gulf of Lepanto
was declared neutral ; yet the fort of Le-
panto, in Rumelia, was not prevented from
taking the customaiy tolls. Nothing ho»-
tile was undertaken against the TuKs by
the French out of the Morea, because the
sultan would, in that case, have declared
war against France. England and France
carefully avbided such a- result, that they
might be able to mediate between the
Porte and Russia. To defend the Morea,
however, from new invasions from the
Turics, the three powers at London, by
their ministere, Aberdeen, Polignac and
Lieven, agreed to send a manifesto to the
Porte (Nov. 16, 1828) to this effect: that
«they should place the Morea and the
Cyclades under tlielr protection till the
time when a definitive arrangement should
decide the fate of the provinces wliich the
allies had taken possession of, and that
they^ should consider the entrance of anv
mihtary force into tills country as an attack
upon themselves. They required the
Porte to come to an explanation with
them concerning the final pacification of
Greece." The French agent, Jaubeit,
carried this note to Constantinople. The
Greeks; in the mean time, continued hos-
tilities. The Greek admiral Cochrane
came, after an absence of eight months
(September 90), on board the new Greek
steam-ship Hermes, at Poros; and Deme-
trius Ypolanti, having under him Coloco-
troni, Tsavellas, Dentzel, Bathros and
others, forced lus way into HeUas Proper
(LivadiaV, at the head of 5000 men, beat
the Turks at Lomotico (November 3),
took Salona (December 3)^ then Lepanto,
Livadia and Vonizza. Reschid Pacha
had been recalled to Constantinople. An
insurrection had broken out again in Can-
dia, which occasioned the massacre of
many Greeks in Kanea (August 14). Haji
Michalis, a Moreot, who perislied after-
wards in battle, excited this unfortunate
contest Mustapha Pacha, who com-
manded the Egyptian troops at Candia,
could with difficulty check the anger of
the Turks against the Greek inhabitants.
This massacre induced the English to
close the port 6f Kanea. The Greeks
took possession, however, of all the open
countiy of Candia. Tlie Russian admiral
Ricord, with one ship of the line and three
frigates, at Tenedos, had blockaded the
Dardanelles, from the 14th of November,
1628, in order to prevent supplies of pro-
visions and militaiy stores nom reaching

Constantinople. The Greeks now fitted
out a great number of privateers. The
sultan, on this account, banished from Con-
stantinople all the Greeks and Armenians
not bom in the city or not settled there,
amounting to more tiian 25,000 persons. On
the 29th, he announced in all the mosques,
that the Mussulmans should remain all
vrinter under arms and in the field, which
had never till now been the case. At the
same time, he called all the men, from 17
to 60 years of age, to arms. Meantime
tiie French were preparing to return to
Toulon. A third of the troops, in Janua-
ry, 1829, lefl the Morea, where diseases
and privations had destroyed many men.
At this time, a scientific expedition of 17
Frenchmen, in three sections, under the
direction of the royal academy, was pre-
pared, by the French minister of the in-
terior, to visit the Morea. The French
g>vemment ransomed several hundred
reek slaves in Egypt, and the king of
France undertook the education of tiie or-
phan children. Thus, after strugcling for
seven years, Greece was placed under
the protection of the three chief European
powers. Mahmoud, however, still de-
clined to recall the edict of extermination,
which he had pronounced when he com-
manded Dram Ali, a few years before, to
bring him the ashes of the Peloponnesus.
Ibrahim had wantonly burned down the
olive groves as ftr as his Arabians spread,
and the Greeks were sunk in the deepest
misery and confusion. Afier unnum-
bered difiiculties, the greatest obstacles to
a well ordered government were in part
overcome by Capo d'Istria. For this ob-
ject, he divided (April 25, 1828) tiie Greek
states into 13 departmente, seven of which
formed the Peloponnesus (280,000 inhab-
itants, 8543 square miles) ; the eighth, the
Northern Sporades (6200 inhabitants, 106
square miles) ; the ninth, the B^astem Spo-
rades<58,800 inhabitants, 318 square miles) ;
the tenth, the Western Sporades (40,000
inhabitants, 169 square miles); the elev-
enth, twelfth and thirteenth, the North,
Central and Soutii Cyclades (91,500 in-
habitants, 1176 square miles^: the whole
amount, therefore, was 476,500 inhabitants
and 10^12 square miles. The first diplo-
matic agent to the Greek government, the
British plenipotentiary, Dawkins, delivered
his credentials to the president Nov. 19,
1828, and tiie French cotonel Fabvier
returned from France to the Morea, to
organize the Greek army. The French
envoy, Jaubert, delivered the protocol of
the conference of the threegreat powers
to the Porte in January, 1829. The ver-

GREECE, REVOLUTION OF MODERN.

bal anewer of the leie eflfendi wa% that
the Porte wished for peace, and would
appoint negotiaton on the arrival of the
Tmach ml Enghah plenipotentiaiiea ;
but that RuBBia could not be admitted to

r I in the mediation, nor ahoukl thia act
conadered as a renunciation of the
aultan'd rights upon the Morea. This an-
swer was the foundation for the confer-
enoe of the mmisterB of England, France
Aid Russia (March 23, 1829), the protocol
of which sets forth what course the pow-
ers intend further to pursue respecting the
Porte. It was a{peed tliat ambasBadors
from Great Britain and France should
immediately proceed to Constantinople,
and open a negotiation for the pacinca-
tion m Greece, in the name of the three
powers. The first subject proposed for
the axHideration of the Poite was the
boundaiy of Greece. A line, beginning
at the gulf of Volo, running thence to the
head of the Othryz, following the course
of that river to the summit east of Agra-
fe which fonns a junction vrith the
Pindus, descending the valley of Aspro-
potamoe by the south of Leontis, travers-
ing the chain of the Macrinoroe, and ter-
mituifiwg ^ at the gulf of Ambracia, was
proposed as the northern boundary of
Greece ; the islands adjacent to the Morea,
EubcBa or Negropont, and the Cvclades,
were likewise to form a part of the new
state. It was also to be proposed, that the
Qffedw ^ould pay an annual tribute of
1^500,000 piastres; the first year's tribute,
however, to be not less than a fifth, nor
more thm a third, of this amount, and to
be craduaily mcreased for four years, till
it flihoukl reach the maximum: a joint
commnaon of Turks and Greeks was to
determine the indemnification of the
Turks for the loss of property in Greece;
die allied powers to appoint a committee
of appeal, m case the former committee
could not agree : Greece should enjoy a
qualified independence, under the sove-
reignty of the Porte: the government to
be under an hereditary Christian prince,
not of the fiunily of either of the allied
sovereigns : at every succession of the
hereditary [xince, an additional year's
tribute to be paid : mutual amnestv to be
required, and all Greeks to be allowed a
year to sell their property and leave the
Turkiah territorie& The ambasBadors
were also to require a prolongation of the
armistice already declared by the Turks,
and a like cessation of arms from the pro-
ynkmal government of Greece, and the
recall of the troops, which had jpone be-
yond the line drawn as above fi:om Volo

to Arta. The three powers were to guar-
anty all these pointa Thou|^ Russia
vras to have no minister present at these
neffotiations^ they were to be conducted
in her name, as well as in diose of France
and England. It was near the middle of
July, bdbre sir Robert Gordon and count
Guil]eminot(the two ambassadors) arrived
at Constantinople. Their reception de-
viated fiiom former usages, paiticulariy in
the omisBion of the hu miliating ceremo-
nies to which Christian ambessadois were
formeriy obliged to submit, which would
have been somewhat out of season at this
time, when Diebitsch had already de-
scended the southern slope of the Rftlfcant
The history of their negotiations is of no
importance, because count Diebitach sign-
ed, with the Turkish plenipotentiaries^ a
treaty, by the 6th article of which the '
sultan formally acceded to the treaty <^
July 6, 1827. (See Russia, and Turkey.)
The protocol or the conference of March,
1899, could be considered by the Greeks
onh as a calamity.

The situation of the president, Ciqpo
d'Istria, had been extremely difiicult, as
the reader can eaaly imagine. He was
vrithout means, in a land torn by discord ;
yet his attention had been directed to eve-
ry thing usefid — the suppression of piracy ;
tne formation of a regular army; the
establishment of courts of justice; of
schools of mutual instruction ; of a sys-
tem of coinage ; of means for coUecting
the revenue, and providing for the subost-
ence of the vnetched remnants of the
population. In November, 1828, he pro-
posed to the Panhellenion, to take imme-
diate measures for calling together the
fourth luitional assembly. The assembly
met at Arvos, and the president, in a long
address (July 23, 1829), gave an account
of the state of the country and of his
measures. He directed the attention of
the asseiifoly particularly to the organi-
zation of the forces and the revenue.*
He says in the speech, **The decree re*

* The ibUowing accountof the Greek land and
sea forces is coatained in the Austrian Observer
of March 21, 1830, a paper which, as the semi-
official joonia] of the Austrian cabinet, was, of
courae, always hostile to the Greek insurrectioo,
but which ffenerally gave truer accounts of the ac-
tual state of things in that unfortunate country, than
were contained in those European papers which
were favorable to the cause of humanity and lib-
erty. Many of the commanding officers are for-
eigners; a neat pari of them French. General
Church anaDemetrius Ypsilanti, the command-
ing officen in Easlem and Western Hellas, had
then resigned. The Greek land forces amounted
to lS,789inen. The navy had greatly declined,
comsiiiting only of one irigate of M guns, one cor-

GREECE, REVOLUTION OF MODERN.

Bpecdng the omnization of the Tegiinents,
the edict retetmg to the raarioe aeirice,
and the measures to eatahfah a DatioDal
bank and a geneFal college, were the first
atepa towards the regulation of the inte«
rior. The Archipelago has been fireed
from pirates ; our warriois are again unit-
ed under their standards; one division,
under the command of admiral Miaulis,
has assured the icee navigation of the
ArdKpelago, and conveyed to our dis-
tressed brethren in Scio every consola-
tion which it was in our power to offer.
A second division, under vice-admiral
Sactouri, was destined for the blockade,
which the admirals of the allied powers
compelled us to abandon.^ The address
further refers to the plague brought by
the army of Ibrahim Pacha, which ex-
tended from the islands to the Peloponne-
sus ; to the expulsion of this pachia ; the
efSbtta of admiral Codrington, and the
landing of the French; addinf^, "The
Greeks of the continent, watching ear-
nei^y to see the borders of the Peloponne-
sus passed, manifested their wishes it this
regard. We ourselves hoped to see them
accomplished, for we were far fix>m ap-
prehending the diplomatic act which de-
cided it otherwise.'' It acknowledges, with
warm gratitude, the succors of the French
in men and money, and alludes, in general
terms, to the conferences with the ambas-
sadors of the allied powers at Poroe. A
statement of receipts and expenditures,
from January, 1828, to April 30, 1829, is
also given. It is evident, from this ad-
dress, that, since theprotocol of the con-
ference of March 22, 1829, the militaiy
operations of the Greeks, both b^ sea and
land, had been arrested by the mterposi-
tion of the allies. In January, however,
general Church had taken the town of
Vonitza, and the citadel surrendered in
March; as did the casde of Romelia, to
Augustin Capo dTstria, the brother of the
prendent, March 26. On Februaiv 9,
Mahmoud, pacha of livadia, with 3500
men, attacked the Greeks, commanded by
die chiharch Vasso, in their camp near
TolantL The pacha was defeated. Li-
vadia and Thebes, where Omer Pacha
commanded, were evacuated soon afler
by the Ottoman troops. Lepanto surren-
dered, April 22, and Missolonghi and Ana-
tolico on May 29. Afler the former had
surrendered, 3000 Greeks marched to re-
inforce the corps then besieging Athens ;

vetle of 36, three steamers (of which two cany 8,
aad one 4 guns), nine brigs of from 4 to 12 guns,
£ve gunboats, and 28 smaller vessels and trans-,
porti.

but the opezfttioiis were soon after arreit-
ed, in deference to the wishes of the
allied povrers. Immediately afler the
meeting of the assembly at Argos, general
Chinch resigned his commission as com-
mander-in-(3iief of the forces of Greece.
Such was the state of thinss when the
peace between Russia and the Porte was
signed at Adrianople, Sept 14, 1829, and
ratified by the Porte, Sept 20. The con-
ferences between the ministers of the
three powers, at London, had now for their
object to select a prince to wear the crown
of Greece. It was ofiered to prince Leo-

Eold of Saxe-Coburg, who had been the
usband of the late princess Charlotte,
daughter of George I V, Feb. 3, 1830, and
was accepted by hun, as ** sovereign prinoe
of Greece,^ February 20. However, he
resigned this honor in a declaration dated
May 21, 1830. The two reasons which
the prince alleges for his resignation are,
the unwillinipessof the Greeks to receive
him, and their dissatiafaction at the aetde-
ment of the boundaries. He says that the
answer of the president of Greece to the
communication of his apoointment, in his
judffment, announces a forced submission
to the aUied powers, and even that forced
submission is accompanied by reserva-
tions of the highest importance. The
president of Greece states, that the pro-
visional govemmeut, according to the de-
crees of^the council of Arvos, has no
power to convey the assent of the Crreek
nation ; and the ffovemment reserves to
itself the power ofsufamitting to the prinee
sach observations as they cannot conceal
from him, without betrayinj^ their trust
towards Greece and the prinee. In re-
gard to the boundaries, his language is,
that the uncompromising determination
expressed by the Greek senate, to retain
possession of the provinces which the
allied powers wish to exclude from the
limits of the new state, will oblige him
either to compel his own subjects, by
force of foreif^n arms, to submit to tjhte
cession of theur estates and properties to
their enemies, or to join with them in
resisting or evading a part of that very
treaty which places him on the throne
of Ch!eece. That one or the other alter-
native will be forced upon him is certain,
because the part of the countrv refetied to
( Acamania and a pan g£ ifitolia, which is
now to be given up to the Turks) is, to-
gether with the fortresses, in the peace-
able possession of the Greeks. It is the
country finom which Greece can best sup-
ply herself with timber for baildini; ships.

GREECE, REVOLUTION OF MODERN.

It B the oountiy which has funiiflhed the
belt soldiera during the war. The chief
nulitafy leaden of the Greeks have been
of Acamanian or iEtc^ian famitiea. Sub-
sequently to the arrival in Greece of the
protocel of the 22d March, 1839, and the
pubfication of the assent of the Turks to
the ezchided frontier in the treaty of Adri-
anopie, all the fiunilies which had sur-
vived the war returned, and commenced
rebuilding their houses and towns, and
cultivating their lands. These people
will never submit again to the Turkish
yoke without resistance, and the other
Greeks will not, cannot abandon them to
their fiue.* The British journals loudly
reproached the prince for his resignation,
ascribing it to m^x at the picture which
the president, Capo d'Istria, drew of the
Btate of the country, or to the hope of be-
oominff regent of the British empire, in
caseofthe accession of the minor princess
Victoria, ft is hardly necessary, how-
ever, to look for motives beyond the dis-
taste which a man of good feelings would
naturally feel to assuming the government
of a nation contrary to their will, and
becoming, as he must become in such
case, a tyrant Since the resisnation of
Leopold, several princes have oeen pro-
posed as candidates for the throne of
Greece, vrithout its ever seeming to have
occurred to the powers that a Greek might
be raised to that honor, or that it would
be wordt while to pay any attention to the
wishes of the nation. According to the
latest accounts, it seems that prince Paul
of Wfbtembeigt is the most prominent
candidate. By the protocol of Feb. 3,
1830^ the boundary or Greece was settled
as follows : On the north, beginning at the
moiith of the Aspropotamos (Achelous),
it runs up the southern bank to Angelo
Castro ; thence through the middle ofthe

* The coirespondeQce of prince Leopold with
thenuDislerSy and with presidlcnt Capo cPIstriaj is
h^jr interesting, as snowing the anntrary spirit
wiifa which the powers of Europe have been dis-
posed lo act towards (Sreece. It is to be found
B the American papers of the middle of July,
1830.

f Prince Paul (Charles Frederic Augustus) is the
brother of the king of Woneniberg : bom Jan.
19^ 1786 ; mairied, 1806. to Cbarlott£(Gatharine),
DfioeeM of Saze-AltenDorg-. bom 1187. He has
fenr children. His eldest oaiu^ter is married to '
ihe jErand-prince Michael, brother to the emperor
of RiKsia : his eldest son Frederic (Charies Au-
gnslns) was bom Feb. 21, 1808. Prince Paul
Wilfiam of Wortembexg (tne traveller), who re-
tomed Nov. 29, 1830, to New Orleans, finom a
jonraey into the western regions of North Ameri-
ca, ii toe 8on of Eugene Frederic Henry, the sec-
ond brother of the reigning king oT wertem-

lakes Sacarovista and Vrachori to motmt
Artoleria; thence to mount Axiros, and
along the valley of Culoiui and die top of
CEta to the gulf of Zeitun. Acamania
and a great pan of iEtoIia and Thessaly
are thus excluded from the Greek state,
and a Turkish barrier interposed between
Greece and the Ionian Islands. Candia,
Samoa, Psana, &C., are not included. The
popuktiou of the state is estimated at
about 635ft00: 280,000 in the Pelopon-
nesus; 175,000 in the islands; 180^000
on the Greek main-land.— Andeison's
Obgerpations oh tht Pdqponnetus and Uie
Greek hland», made in 1»29 (Boston, 1890).
For further information, we refer the
reader to Greece m 1823 and 1824, by
colonel Leicester Stanhope (Philadelphia,
1825); also, the Fietwre of Greece in 1825
(2 volis., New York, ISSS) ; the Hittory
Modem Greece, with a View of the
AniiiqmHes and present Con-
dUioh of Biai CowOry (Boston, 1827); the
ISHoncal Sketch of the Greek Reoolvr
Hon, by Samuel U. Howe (New York,
1828); TravelB m Greece, by J. P. Miller
(Boston, 1828); Visit to Greece and Coii-
MtantinMle, in the Years 1827 and 1828,
by H. A. V. Post (New York, 1830} ; Raf-
fenel's (editor of the Soeetateur Oriental
at Smyrna, continued atxerwards by TVi-
comi) lEstoire des Enhtemens de la Gr^
(Paris, 1822) ; Considiraiions star la Guare
actuelle entre Us Grecs et les Turks, par
un Grec (Paris, 1821) ; colonel Voutier's
(who fought, in 1821 and 1822, in Greece)
Mhnoires sur la Guerre aetudle des Grecs
(Paris, 1822^; Agrotis' Pricis des CMra-
tions de la Flotte Grecque, durant la lUwh
hdion de 1821 et 1822 (Paris, 1822), (chiefly
after the log-book or the Hydnot Jacob
Tumbasis, who commanded a fleet, and
fbll in an engagement, in 1822) ; several
publications by eye-wimeases, interesting
as historical memoirs, by Mtiller, Lieber,
&c. Ed. Blaqui^re wrote, on the spot,
the Greek Revolution, its Origin and
Promss, together with some Remarks on
tte Reunion, &c., m Greece (London,
1824), with phites. Maxime Raybaud, an
officer in the corps of Philhellenes, pub-
lished Mimoires star la Gr^eepow servir d
VlSstoire de la Guerre de PBuUpendance,
1821 et 1822, with topographical maps,
(Paris, 1825, 2 vols.). See, also, Pouque-
ville's HisUnre de la RigenSratum de la
Grice, &c, or the Histoiy fi^m 1740 to
1824, witii maps (Paris, 1^ 2d ed., 1828,
4 vols.); ViUemain'sLoMorw (Paris, 1826);
La Grhe en 1821 et 1822; Ckmtspond'
enu poUiimie, pubU6e parvn Grec (Paris,
1823). The Cornier de Smyme m often

MODERN GREEK LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE.

quoted bb an authority iu regard to Grsek
afiairs. Of its truatworthinesB we may
judge from a letter addreaaed by count
Ca^ d'ktria, March 1% 1830, to the
French reaident, baron de Rouen, in
which he mentions the. pubheadon of
tiro decreea, attributed to the Greek
govenmieut, which are mere forgeries,
and requesiB that proper measures may
be taken to compel the editor to avow
their fidaehood

Modem Oreek Lmuniage (called Roma^
ie)a9yi IMeraJturt, The manly attitude,
assumed by the Greeks since 1821, has
attracted attention to their language, which,
even in its dej^neracy, recalls the beau-
ties of the ancient tongue. Grateful for
the culture bestowed on it, the Greek lan-
guage seems to have preserved its purity
K>nger than any other known to us ; and
even lone after its purity was lost, the
echo of 3us beautiiul tongue served to
keep alive something of the spirit of an-
cient Greece. All the supports of this ma-
jestic and refined dialect seemed to fail,
when the Greeks were enslaved by the
M of Constantinople (A. D. 1453). All
the cultivated classes, who still retained
the pure Greek, the language of the By-
zantme princes, either perished in the
oonffict, or took to flight, or courted the
fiivor of their rude conquerors, by adopt-
ing their dialect In the lower ckusses,
ODiy, did the common Greek survive (the

«iMry^/tii)^;, ilirXj;, Ihmnai ^ioX»ro(] the Vul-
gar dialect of the poliahed claases, the
traces of which occur, indeed, in eariier au-
thors, but which first appears distinctly in
the sixth century. This Gredc foUAs de-
parted still more from the punty of the
vnitten langua^ which took refuge at
•ourt, in tte tribunals of justice, and the
haUs of instruction, when the Frank cru-
saders augmented it by their own peculiar
expressiona, and the barbarians in the
neighboriiood engrafted dieire also upon
it This popular dialect first appears as a
complete wntten language in the chroni-
cles of Simon Sethos, in 1070^-80. After
the Ottomans had become masters of the
country, all tlie institutions which had
contributed to preserve a better idiom
periahedatonce. The people, left to them-
selves, oppressed by the most brutal despot-
ism, would finally have abandoned tneir
own dialect, which became constantly
more corrupt, had not the Greeks pos-
sessed a sort of rall^ff point in tneir
church. Their patnanm remaining to
them at the conauest of their capital
(taiagiotacclii, who was appointed, iu
1500, mterpreter of the sultan), they turn-

ed to him as then* head, and saw, in the
OTBod of their church, his senate, and io
the kmcuage of the works of the fiithecs
of the church, and the Old and New Tes-
taments, a standard which tended to give
a uniform character to the different dia-
lects. Neglected and exposed to the vi-
cissimdes of fortune, destitute of a creed
which could elevate their moral senti-
ments, thvrarted in all their pursuits, urg-
ed by the state of things around them to
indolent voluptuousness or vindictive mal-
ice, the unpoverished institutions for in-
struction were of little efficiency. As the
proper guardians of morality and educa-
tion, the deifgy and monks were them-
selves ijporant and corrupt The debase-
ment of this fine dialect continued till the
middle of the last century ; for the few
writers of that period disdained to use the
language of the people, and resorted to
the ancient Greek, then, unhappily, an ex-
tinct dialect The Greek spirit, not yet
extinffuished by all the adversities the nar
tion had undergone, finally revived with
increased vigor ; for the mildest of cli-
mates, ever maintaining and cherishing a
sei-enity of feeling, the imperishable heri-
tage of hallowed names and associations,
and even the love of song, kept alive some
sparks of patriotic sentiment . With Rhi-
zos, we ma^ divide this revival into three
disdnct penods. The first, fiom 1700 to
1750, gave the Fanariots influence and
efficiency in the seraglio, especially after
Mavrocordato (Alex.) became dragoman
of the Porte, and his son first hospodar
of Moldavia and Walachia. During the
second period, fiom 1750 to 1800, the
Greelffl resorted for instruction to the uni-
versities of the west, and returned thence
to their native country. Naturallv in-
clined to commerce, they soon manifested
a dexterity and shrewcuiess, which ena-
bled many to amass considerable wealth.
Kept together by external pressure, it be-
came neccssaiy for them to rely on their
own countrymen. Necessity taught them
the value of education, and their admis-
sion to the administration of the govern-
ment of Moldavia and Walachia raised
their views to political lifb. They became
desirous of making nearer approaches to
the more civilized luuions of Europe, so
as IKH to remain behind in the general
progress. The Greeks began to pay more
attention to their mother tongue, and this
tendency was increased by intercourse
with the more refined West, bv means of
more finquent vints from inteUigent men
of that quarter to the ruins or Greciar
greatness. The patriarch (Samuel £u

MODERN GREEK LANOU AGE AND LITERATURE.

TlMOtDOO0) of Corfb, and
I unibrtunBte Rhi^aa, may be mentioD-
edaaenuiiem aft tii0 period. Butmllie
tfeoM Boiod, from WOO to die preaeut
tiine, tma increaae of ihe meanaof educa-
tioB fim exerted a powoful infliience on
tbe BBtkii, which, nvored by exfieinal cir-
eum i ten c ca , now reafly be|^ to be oon-^
aema of die oppreaaon uider which tbey
auflered. Sehoms were Ibtined at Odea-
aa, Yemoe, Viemia, Jaaay, Buchaieat, and
in the Ionian Ldanda, most of which have
once ceased to enst Even in CkMiatan-
tiaople, in the reiga of Selim III, aome
FanaiiotB (q. y.), eapecialty the noble
prince Demetrina Merouri, who ibimded
a natiofi'tl academy at Kuru Tacheeme in
1805, rendered great aemcea to the mod-
em Greek language and Ifleratiiie. (viat-
itude to die mother waa, widi the reet of
Europe, a motire fyr attention to the
dau|mter ; and the language gained alike
by die influence of the nativea and of
Ibrragneffib The worica pimted at Jaaay,
Boclwreat (where Spiridcm Valetaa, the
ornament of thecouit in that place, trans-
lated, under the name of AriBloniene8,the
celebrited treatise of Romaeaa, Siar Phi-
goHU det Gtmddumt), Venice and Leip-
■c were, at first, moad^r theological ; but,
with the increaae of mduatty and eeoEi-
merce, particidariy amon^ die Hydriota,
and of the wealth of individuaJa, the cir-
cukdon of bookawas also enluged by
the aarifllance of foreim and cordial
fiiends of the nation. 'Hie language it-
ael^ which in its degradation waa not dea-
titme of melody and flezibBity, gained en-
ei^ and riraeity from their eflbrta, al-
though the attempts of aome individuals
lo bring it nearer to the ancient dassic
dialect, did TiQlaice to its idiomatic char-
icter. (Sec'CoTD^.) The attempt to
bring die existing idiom nearer the JB^-
zaotme Greek and die language of the
pitriaicfas, made by the Atheman Codri-
c%-4fae waim adversary of Corey,— Jaco-
fadoB Rlusos, and many odien, waa more
rational ; and the periomcal '^^m Xoyws, es-
labGabed at Vienna Ir^ the influence of
Cony , with the other sunilar worioB which
it caued into exiBtence, was not without
cflect But every attempt will be vam
to deprive die modem Greek language of
its nectifiar character, especially after a
eenffict which has excited so violend v
the frefings of the natioD. The wealth
•f the modem Greek language, which
famer d&etionariea show but venrimper-
Ibcdy, because it can oi^ be fu^ exhib-
ited by the assistance of manv gtoesaries
— Vendoti, Mod. Gr. Ital. and French (Vi-

enna, 1790); Weigel,Mod.Gr. GeraiL and
ItaL (Laipaic,1796); Cumae, Mod. Gr.
RoBi. and French (Moacow,iail); Vkai,
Mod. Gr.andItaL(Venice,ld06); £)chnudt*a
Mod. Gr. andGemn. Diet (Leqiric, 1835)^
— woidd have been mora fiiUy displayed
by the large dictionary, intended to fill ax
folio volumes^ the superintendence of
which was undertaken at Conslantinopla
in 1821, by the patriarch Gregory (q. y,\
but which was mtenrupled bythe murder
of the old maI^ April 22» 1821, widi the
destruction of so many inatitutiona of
learning foatered by him.* For aflsquur-
ing a knowledge of the language itwll^
which difiere fiom the ancient cniefly in
the foraiatioa of the tensea and in die
teraainationa of the nouna, die means
have now increaaed. The granunar of
Christopylua, puhhshed in Vienna in 1805»
which conaiaers the modem Greek as
.fiohc-Doric, Schmidt's Modem Greek
Grammar (Leipsic, 1808), and another
Greramn and Greek grammar, by Bqiads-
chi (Vienna, 1821 and 1823), beaidea Jides
David'b veiy vahiaUe Af»Me pour ihu^
laLangue OncqntModem^ (Paris, 1821),

and a SviwriMr wh^aSXatkia^of nis AW'^nps ««

y^MuoK yXmcant (Paria, 1820), W. MOn-
nich's Mod. Greek Gnmmar (Dreaden,
1826lVonLfldeniann'b Manual of dioMod.
Greek Language (Leipaic, 1826),flumBh
important assistance. CJenoan philologiali^
Buch as Friedemann and Poppo, have,
moreover, conaidered the relations of the
modem GredL to the ancient A worit
which ia highly impoftant for the Ian-
ffuace, as it exists, is the Remarics of
£l Leake oh the Lanffuagea apoken in
Greece at the present Day, lo he found
in hia Researches in Greece (18141 (See
also the DUaon. Fhm^ais OreeAMnnt
vrMdi <f an Diawun but la Gromnunre if
fa Sjfniaxe de Pune d Pautn Langvevar
Gr^. ZdlieflgiM; Ptois, 1824.) Tliefite-
rature of the modem Greeks, which had
consisted chiefly of transbtioos fiom tlie
French, could not very much elevate the
spirit of the people, as the matter ova-
aented was, in most cases, uncongenial ta
their character; but after the noble Go-
ray, and othen of siroihr
had devoted themaelves to its
ment,ahigheractivi|vwasperoeptible. The
school at Scio (unhappily destroyed bf
the maasacre of Apnl 11, 1822), which
had existed since 18iX> ; the academy at
Yanina, whose director, Adianaaiiis Paali-

* The fint and second volumes of Uiis Ark of
the Chrttk Languagef n>peaced at CoBStantioo-
pie ia 1819, etc. from die posif pf ttaa patriaKh
u the Faaar.

M<H>ERN GREEK UTERATURE-OBEEK CHURCH.

da, was regaidfad as the first modem
Groek sohour; and the academy founded
by the French on the Ionian Islands, were
points of union for the Greek youih, not
without influence on the Gre^ people.
Under the protection of England, and
lord Guilford's wise care, me Greek
8|Hrit was gradually dev^oped. An Ion-
ic Ghreek univenity was opened at Cor-
fu, by the direction of Canning, May 19,
ISSa, It consistB of four ftcultie^ for
theology, law, medicine and philoso^y.
' Its chancellor was lord Guilford. The
lectures are in the modem Greek language.
The most distinguished professors are,
Bambas of Scio, Asopios, and Piccolo
(who delivers lectures on modem philoso-
phy). In Paris, a distinct professorship of
die modem Greek has existed for several
years, and M. Clonaris deliveiB a course
of veiy popular lectures on it Those
delivered by Jacobakis Rhizos Nerulos,
at Geneva, were printed in a French
translation (Geneva, 1827). In Munich, a
professorship was afterwards established.
In Vienna, Petersburg, Trieste, wealthy
Greeks afforded important aid to the lite-,
rature of their countrymen. In Odessa,
a Greek theatre has existed for several
ysan, where ancient Greek tragedies^
translated into the modem langua^ de-
light the spectators. Such expenments
w«re followed by original productions of
Jacobakis Rhizos (Abasia and Polyxena)^
of Piculos, and by translations of modem
dramatic works by Oiconomos, Coccina-
kis, &c The inspiring strains of Rhigas
(q. V.) and Polyzois roused the military
spirit of their countrvmen. Christopylus,
in the style of the Teian bard, pours out
his cheerfid sdnins ; nor must Kjdbo and
Salomo of Zante be fonotten ; the tone
of the productions of ^nnacateky Tia-
nites, of Constantinople, is more melan-
choly. Sakellario's muse is grave (Vien-
na, 1817), and Perdicari's, satiricaL As an
mpromtatan, Nicolopylus met with ap-
plause at Paris. Andreas Mustoxidi (q. v.),
historian of the island of Corfo, is an or-
nament of modem Greek literature, equal-
ly distinguished as an Italian author, bv
his Life of Anacreon. Among the mul-
titude of tmnslators engaged on political
works, Iskenteri, who trai^ted Voltaire's
Zadig into modem Greek, is hi^y es-
teemed. Bambas, Cumas (the translator
of Krug's System of Philosophy), Alex-
andridis, Anthimoe Gazis, DuCas, Gubde-
las, Codricas, Condo8,Mich. Schinas, Spy-
ridon Tricoupi, Solyzoides, were names
distinguished before the beginning of the
late desolating troubles. The Mdisaa

(the Bee), a modem Gtaek jounal, pub-
lished by Spyridon Condos and Agc^o-
I^iron, in Pans, in 1821, was discontinued
when the contnbutors engaged in the war
of liberty. On the whole, about dOOO
works in the modem Greek language
have appeared within 50 yean. Fauriel, a
Frenchman, collected all the popular mod-
em Greek songs (Paris, 1824--2Ss 2 vols. ),
and in them has given the public a com-
mentary on the events of the day. For more
minute inforaoation, we refer to Ikon's
HeUemon and Lmeotiieoj and to the peri-
odicals. Consult JuL David's Compari-
son of the Ancient and Modem Greek
Languages (translated fit>m the modem
Greek by Stmve, Berlin, 1627) ; Minoides
Mines, IhtUisurlavintabU Prvnoneiaiion
de ia Langue Grecque (Paris, 1827). Co-
ray's system is at present generally adopt-
ed, to enrich and ennoble the modem
Greek language from the treasures of the
ancient Greek, avoiding the too difficult
inflections,' and removmg the German-
isms and Gallicisms intrwluced by trans-
lations.

Greek Omrch ; that portion of Christians
who conform, in then- creed, usages and
church government, to the views of Chris-
tianity introduced into the former Greek
empire, and perfected, since the 5th cen-
tuiy, under the patriarchs of Constantino-
ple, Alexandria, Antioch.and Jerusalem.
Christendom, which, with difficulty, had,
been broti^ht to a state of ponoord in the
4th and wi craituries, already contained
the germ of a fUture schisni, by reason
both of its extent, as it embraced the
whole east and west of the Roman em-
pire, and of the diversity of language,
modes of thinking and manners, among
the nations profesong it The foundation
of a new Rome in Constahtinople ; the
political nartition of the Roman empue
mto the Oriental, or Greek, and the Occi-
dental, or Latin ; the elevadon of the bii^-
op of Constantinople to the place of sec-
ond patriareh of Christendom, inferior
only to the patriarch of Rome, effected in
the councils of Constantinople, A. D. 381,
and of Chalcedon, A. D. 451; tbe jealousy
of the latter patriarch towards the grow-
ing power or the former, — were circum-
stances, which, together with the ambigu-
ity of the edict known under the name
of the fTenottcon, mnted by the Greek
emperor Zeno, Al D. 482, and obnoxious
to the Latins on account of the appearance
of a deviation from the decrees of the
council of Chakedon, produced a formal
schism in tlie Christian church. Fehx II,
patriarch of Rome, pronounced sentence

GREEK CHURCH.

•f fflMommunicaiion agunst the polri-
arelw of GoBBtaatiiiople and AlezandnB,
wbo had been the leading agente of the
HenotKOD, A. D. 484, and thus aeverod att
eodeaaadcal i^]o^nliq> with the congr&*
gttdoDB of the East, attached to these patri-
archs. The aentimoitBof the imperial couit
bemg diBDged,tbe R<»nan patriarch Hot*
midas was aUe, indeed, to eompel a re*
union of tHe Gfeek chinch widi tne Ladn,
in 519; but thia nnion, never aerioualy in-
tended, and kwsely compacted, was again
dteolved by the obstinacy of both parties,
tad the Roman sentence of ezcommuni-
cation a^^ainst the Iconoclasts among the
Gteefca, A. D. 733; and against Photius,
the patnarch of Constantinople, A. D.
9SL The aogmentation of the Greek
chorch, by tb» addition of newly conrert-
ad natkMQti, as &e Bulgarians, excited
anew, about this time, the jealousy of the
Roman pontiff*; and his bearing towards
the Gveda was the more hau^ty since
he bad renoonced his allegianoe to the
Gfe^ emperor, and had a iSire protectioii
against him in the new FrankiBh-Roman
empoe. Pholius, on the other hand,
chaiged the Latins with ari^itraiy conduct
in insetting an unscriptural addition into
die creed respecting the origin of the
lioiy Ghoflt, and in altering many of the
usages of the ancient orthodox church;
for example, in foriiiddin^ their priests to
marry, repeating the chnsm, and fasting
on Satniday, as the Jewish sabbath. But
he complained, with justice, in particular,
of the aanniptionB of the pope, who pre-
tended to be the sovereign of all Chris-
tendom, and treated the Gre^ patriarchs
as his inl^riois. The deposition of this
pabiaieh, twice efiectad by the pope, did
not tenninatB the dispute between the
Gredn and Lrans ; and when the patri-
aich of CcMistantinople, Michael Cenila-
riuB, added to the charges of Photiua,
agshist the Latins, an accusation of here-
sy, in 1054, on account of thehr use of
unkafened bread at the communion, and
of the blood of animals that had died by
stmngulation, as weU as on account of the
immmlity of the Latin clergy in general.
Pope Leo IX, having, in retaliation, ex-
communicated him, in the most insulting
manner, a total separation ensued of the
GrecJc church from the Latin. From
this time, pride, obstinacy and selfishness
frastrated all die attempts which were
made to reunite the severed churches,
pardy by the popes, in order to annex the
East to their see, pertly by the Greek em-
peroiB (equidly oppressed by the crusadem
and Mohammedans), in Older to secure tho

of the tnincca of die West.
Neither would yidd to die other in re-
spect to the contested points, en wi^ch
we hove touched aboie. While the
Catholic religion acquired a more com-
plete and peculiar character under Gmg-
oiy VII, and through the scholasde pm-
Iqsopby, the Greek church retained its
creed, as ainnged by John of Damascus,
in 730, and its ancient constitution. The
conquest of Constantinople by the French
crusaders and the Venetians, A. D. 1204,
and the cruel oppresBions which the
Greeks had to endure from the liadns
and the papal legates, only increased their
exasperation ; and aldiou^ the Greek em-
peror Michael II (Pialfleologus, who had
reconquered Constantinople in 126n
consented to recosuise die supremacy or
the pc^ie, and by his envoys and some of
the clerey, who wesn devoted to him, ab-
jured tSe points of separation, at the as-
sembly, at Lyons, A. D. 1274; uid thoimh
a i^t synod was held at Constantinople, m
1377, for the purpose of strengthening the
union with the Latin church, the mam of
the Greek church was neveftheless op-
posed to this step; and pope Martin iV,
having excommunicated the emperor
MichMl,in 1261, from political motives^
the councils held at Constantinople, in
1263 and 1265, by the Grade bishq), re-
stored their old doctrines and the separa-
tion from the Latins. The last attempt
was made by the Greek emperor John
VII (Palseoldgus, who was veiy hard
pressed by the Tuiks)^ together with tho
patriarch Joseph, in the councils held,
met at Fenara, in 143& and the next
year at Florence, pope Kugene IVpre-
si£ng; but the union concluded theie
had the appearance of a submission of
the Gre^s to the Roman see, and was
altogether rejected by the Greek clergy
and nation, so that, in &ct, the schism of
the two churches continued. The eflforfis
of the Greek emperors, on this point, who
had always had most interest in these at-
tempts at unicm, ceased with the over-
throw of their emfMre and the conquest
of Constantinofrfe by the Turks, A. D.
1453; and the exertions of the Roman
Catholics to subject the Greek diurch, ef-
fected nothing but the acknowledgment
of die supremacy of the pope by some
congregations in Italy (whither many
Greeks had fled before die Tniks), in
Hunsaxy, GaBcia, Pofend and Lithuania,
whien c6ngregations are now known un-
do^ die. name of DnUed Qrteks. In the
7di century, (he territoiy of the Greek
church embraced, beskles East lUtyria^

GREEK CHURCH.

<Sreece Proper, with the Morea and the
Archipelago, Ataa, Minor, Syria, ifrith Pal-
estine, ArSbia, Egypt, and numeroue con-
negations in Ik^opotamia and Persia;
DQt the cooqueats of Mohammed and his
sucoesBorB have deprived it, since 630, of
ahnoet all itsprovinces in Asia and Africa ;
and even in Europe the number of its adhe-
rents was considerably diminished by the
Tuiks in the 15th century. On the other
hand, it was increased by the accession
of several Sclavonian nations, and espe-
cially of the Russians, who were com-
pelled by the great prince Wladimir, in
the year 988, to adopt the creed of the
Greek Christians. To this nation the
Greek church is indebted fer the symboli-
cal book, which, with the canons of the
first and second Nicene^ of the first, sec-
ond and third Constantmopolitan, of the
Ephesian and Chalcedonian general
councils, and of the , Tndlan council,
h<dden at Constantinople in 609^ is the
sole authority of the Greek Christian in
doctrinal matters. After the learned Cy-
rillus Lascaris, patriarch of Constantino-
ple, had tftoned, with his li&, fi>r the ap-
proach to Protestantism perceptible in Us
creed, A. D. 1629, an exposition of the
doctrine of the Russians was drawn up,
in the Greek language, by Pet Mogislaus,
biriiop of Kiev, 1642, under the title
the Orthodox Confession of the Catholic
and Apostolic Church of Christ, signed
and ratified, 1643, by all the patriarchs of
the Greek church, to whom had been
added, in 1589, the fiilh patriart;h of
Moscow. It was printed in Holland, in
Greek and Latin, 1662, with a pre&ce by
thepatriarch Nectarius of Jerusalem. In
1690, it was published by the last Russian
patriarch, Adrianus of Moscow; and, in
1722, at the command of P^r die Great,
b^ the holy synod ; it having been pre-
viously declared to be in all cases valid,
as the ritual of the Greek church, by a
council at Jerusalem, in 1672, and W the
ecclesiastical rule of Peter the Great,
drawn up, in 1721, by Theophanes Proco-
wicz. lake the Catholic, this church
recognises two sources of doctrine, the
Bible and tradition, under which last it
comprehends not only those doctrines
which were orally delivered by the apos-
tles, but also those which have been ap-
proved of by the fathers of the Greek
church, especially John of Damascus^ as
well as by the seven above-named general
councils. The other councils, whose au-
thority is valid in the Roman Catholic
church, this church does not recognise;
nor does it allow the patriarchs or synods

to introduce new doctrines. It treats its
tenets as so entirely obligatory and neces-
sary, that they cannot to denied without
the loss of salvation. It is the only
church which holds that the Holv Ghost
proceeds fiY>m the Father only, thus dif-
fering fix)m the Catholic and Protestant
chufches, which agree in deriving the
Holy Ghost firom the Father and the Son.
Like the Catholic church, it has seven sa-
craments— inptiam, chrinifthe eucharist
preceded by con&saon, penance, ordina-
tion, marriage and extreme unction \ but
it is peculiar, 1. in holding that fiill purifi-
cation fix)m original sin in baptism re-
quires an immersion three times of the
whole body in water, whether infimts or
adults are to be baptized, and in joining^
chrism (confirmation) with it as the com-
pletion of baptism ; % in adopting, as to
the eucharist, the doctrine of transubstain-
tiation, as well as the Catholic views of
the host ; but it orders the bread to be leav-
ened, the wine to be mixed with water,
and both elements are distributed to every
one, even to children, he^re they have a
true idea of what sin is, the communi-
cant receiving the bread broken in a
r>on filled with the consecrated wine;
all the clergy, with the exception of
the monks, and of the higher c)er^ chosen
fix>m among them, down to the bishops
inclusive, are allowed to many a virgin,
but not a widow ; nor are they allowed
to many a second time; and therefore
the widowed clergy are not permitted to
retain their livings, but go into a clois-
ter, where they are call^ JderomcnackL
Rarefy is a widowed clergyman allowed
to preserve his diocese; and fixim the
maxim, that marriage is not suitable for
the higher clergy in general, and second
marriage at least is iroprof^r for the low-
er, there is no departure. The Greek
church does not regard the marriage of
the laity as indissoluble, and finequentiy
grants divorces; but is as strict as the
Catholic church with respect to the for-
bidden degrees of relationship, especially
of the ecclesiastical relationship of god-
parents; nor does it allow the laity a
fourth marriage. It difiers fix>m the
Catholic church in anointing with the
holy oil, not only the dyinff, but the sick,
for the restoration of their nealth, the for-
^veness of their sins, and the sanctifica-
tion of their souls. It rejects the doo-
trine of purgatory, has nothing to do with
predestination, works of supererogation,
indulgences and dispensations (to the liv-
ing; but a printed fonn for the forgive-
ness of flin is sometimes given to the de-

GUIEEK CHUBCH.

. at the requert and for the com-
foit of the flurvivore); and itrecogniaes
neither the pope nor any one else as the
viaiUe vicar of Chnat on eaith. It more-
over allowB no carved, sculptured or
molten image <^ holy persona or auljectB ;
but the repreaentationB of Christ, of
die viigin Mcgry and the sainta, which are
objects of religious veneradon in churches
and private houses, must be merely paint-
. ed, and, at most, inlaid with precious
stones. In the Russian churches, how-
ever» works of sculpture are found on the
ahan. In the invocation of the saints,
and especi^ of the virgin, the Greeks
are as zealous as the Catholics. They
also hold reficfi^ graves and crosses sacred ;
and croaainff in the name of Jesus, they
consider as having a wondeifid and bless-
ed influence. Amonff the means of pen-
ance, fiuts are particujarihr numerous with
them, at which it is not lawful to eat any
thing but fruits, vecetables, bread and
fish. They fast Wednesday and Friday
•f every week ; and, besides, observe four
great annual ftsts, viz., 40 days before
Easter, from Whitsuntide to the days of
3t Peter and Paul; the ftst of the virgin
Mary, from the 1st to the 15th of August ;
and the apostle Philip's fast, from the 15th
to the 26tn of November ; besides the day
of the beheading of John, and of the ele-
vation of the cross. Hie services of the
Greek church consist abnost entirely in
outward forms. Preaching and catechis-'
ing ccHMBDtute the least part of It; and, in
the 17th century, preachinc was stiicdy
forbidden in Russib, under the czar
Aiexis^ in order to prevent the di Aiaion
of new doctrines. In Turkey, preaching
was confined almost exclusively to the
higher clergy, because they alone possess-
ed some degree of knowledge. Each con-
gregation lue its appointed choir of sing-
as, who sing psalms and hymns. The
congregations themselves do not, like us,
sing firom books ; and instnunental music
is excluded altogether from the Greek
worship. Besides the mass, which is re-
garded as the chief thing, the liturgy con-
sistB of passages of Scripture, prayers and
leeeods of the saints, and in the recitation
<H the creed, or of sentences which the
officialiDg priest begins, and the people in
a body continue and finish. The con-
yeats conform, for the nooet part, to the
strict rule of St. Basil The Greek ab-
bot 18 termed fttnoneiuw, the abbess kigvr
■Kne. The abbot of a Greek convent,
which has several others under its inspec-
tioD^is termed orcftMwmMe, and hasa rank
next below that of bishop. The kmer

[V in the Greek church onaislB of
ers, sinipen, deacons, &C., and of
priests, such as me popes and protopopea
OF arch priests, who are the first clergv in
the cathedrals and metropoUtan churSies.
The members of the lower deny can
rise no higher than protopopes; for the
bishops are chosen from amonff the
mordtis, and from the bishops, archbish-
ops, metropolitans and patriarchs. In
Rtiasia, there are 31 clioceses. With
which of them the arch-episcopal dignity
shall be united, depends on the will of the
emperor. The seats of the four metro-
oolitans of the Russian empire are
Petersburg, with the jurisdiction of
Novgorod; Kiev, with that of Galicia;
Kasan, with that of Sviiaschk ; and
Tobolsk, with diat of all Siberia. The
patriarchal dignity of Moscow, which tha
patriarch Nikon (died in 1681) was said to
have abused, Peter the Great abolished,
by presenting himself before the Iwaho^
assembled, after the death of Adna,
170SL to choose a new patrisfch, with the
words, "I am your paoriarch;^ and, in
1721, the whole church govenmient of
his empire was intrusted to a coUepe of
bishops and secular clergy, called the
hoUf Mynodf first at Moscow, now at Pe-
teiwurg. Under this synod now stand,
b^ide the metropolitans, 11 archbishops,
19 Inshops, 12,500 parish churches, and
425 convents, 58 of which are coimected
with monastic schoob for the educati<«
of the clergy, and, for the better efifecting
of this object, are aided by an annual pen«
sion of 300,000 rubles fix>m the state. The
Greek church, under the Turkish domin-
ion, remained, as fiur as was possible imder
such ciroumstances, faithful to the orimnal
constitution. The dignities of patriarcn of
Coofitantinople, Alexandria, Antioch and
Jerusalem still subsist The former, how-
ever, possesses the ancient authoriQr of
the former archbishop of Constantinople ;
takes the lead as oecumenical patriairch,
in the holy synod at Constantinople, com-
posed of the four patriarchs, a number of
metropolitans and bishops, and 12 principal
secular Gredra ; exercises the highest ec- ,
clesiastical jurisdiction over the Greeks in ^
the whole Turkish empire, and is recog-
nised as head of the Greek churcn, by
the (not united) Greeks in Galicia, in the
Bukowina, in Sclavonia and the Seven
Idands. The other three patriarehs, since
almost all the people in their dioceses are
Mohammedans, have but a small efhete
of action (the patriarch of Alexandria has
but two churches at Cairo), and live, for
die most part, on the aid afiforded them

GREEK CUURCH-OBEEN CLOTH.

by the Mtriaroh of Cknstantinople. lliig
patriarch has a oonriderable income, but
us obliged to pay neariy half of it as a
tribute to the miltaiL The Greeks, under
die Tufkish goveinilient, are allowed to
build no new churchee, have to pav dear-
ty fiM" the permianon to reiiair the old
ones, are not allowed to have steeples or
bells to their churches, nor even to wear
^ the Turiuflh dress, generally perfoim re^
' lisious service by ni^t, and are moreover
obliged, not only to pay tolls, from which
theTurios are firise, but the males also pay
to the sukan, af^er their 15th year, a heavy
poU tax, under the name o£ exeawHonfrom
IdteatUng. For a long time, the attach-
ment of this church to old institutions has
sUkkI in the w&y of all attempts at im-
provement Such attempts have oven
rise to a number of sects, which the Kua-
aian government leaves unmolested. Ab
eariy as the 14th centuir, the party of the
Strigolnictans seceded trom hatred of the
deiigy, but, as they bad no other peculiar-
ity, soon perished. The same was done,
with more success, by the Roskolnicians
(L e., the i^Mstates), about 1666. (See
RoMhucians.) This sect, which, by de-
grees, Yns divided into 20 different par-
ties, by no means fonns a regular eccle-
siastical society, with symbols and usages
of it^ own, but consistB of single cfmffe-
gations, independent of each ower, which
are distinguished from the Greek church
by preserving, unaltered, the ancient Scla-
vonian litmgy, &c. ; have a oonsecratad
cleigy; and, having retired from aariy
persecution, have become numerous in
the eastern provinces of the Russian em-
pire. The different pardea^onfonn, more
or less, to the peowlarities attributed to
the Roskolnicians in general, such as de-
claring the use of toDa<;co and of strong
drinlES sinful, fiisting yet more strictly
than the oithodox churck refusing to
tedce oaths; and are, from a nnatical spirit
similar to that of the fonner Anabaptists,
inclined lo rebeHion against their nilera.
Pugatschew, himself a Roskdnidan,
foimd most of his adherents among them
in his rebellion. At present, they have re-
laxed much of their stricmess on these
pmnts, as well as their ftntastic notions
vrith respect to marriage, dress, the priest^
hood and martyrdom, and seem to be
gradually merging among the (nihodox.
The Philippones (q. v.) were exiled Ros-
kolnicians, who settled in lithuania and
East Prussia, under Philip PastoswisBL
Farther removed from the belief of the
Greek church are the Duchoboizy, a sect
settled on the steppes (q. v.), beyond the

Don, which rejecti the doctrine of tka
Trinity, and receives die Go^wb only, hM
no churches nor nriesis, and regaida oatbi^
as well as wamre, unlawfrd. Antitrin-
itarians, of a similar kind, are the iZus^
sian Jetcs, as they are called in the gov-
ernment of Archansel and Katharinodav,
of whom it is only known that they wor-
ship neither Christ nor the saints, reject
baptism, and have no priests nor church-
es. (Re^ctinf^ the ancient scfaianuitic
and heretical religious parties in Aoa and
Africa, that have proceeded from the
Greek church, see Vopta, JSysstma^ Jaeo-
Utef, Maionani, MatranUea^ JShrmadans.)

Greek Fire. (See Fire, Greek.)

Green, a river of Kentucky, which rises
in Lincoln county, and flows into the Ohio,
61 miles ab9ve the Wabash, 173 below
Louisville. Its course for about ISOmUes
iswesterfy; it afterwards hasa comae N.
by W. Us whole length is upwards of
200 miles, and it is navigable for boats, at
some seasons, neariy 150. The tract
through which it flowa, calted the €ireen
ricer cwmJtry, is remarkable for its fertihty,
beautifril scenery and stupendous caves,
in which are foiind great quantities of ni-
tre.

Green Bank ; one of the banks near the
island of Newfoundland, 129 miles bng
and 48 wide. Lon. 53° 30^ to 5S° 50^ W. ;
lat 45^30^ to ie^SCN.

Green Rat, or POAN Bat ; bay on W.
ode of lake Michigan, about 100 milea
long^ but in some plaoes only 15 miles, in
others from 20 to 30, broad. It lies nearly
from N.E. to S. W. At the entrance of
it from the lake is a string of islands ez-
tendinffN. to S., called the Qrand TVoo-
er«e. These are about 30 miles in length,
and serve to flicilitate the niaaace of ca-
nooa, as they shelter them m>m ue vrindi^
which sometimes come vrith violence
across the lake. Grran Bay is termed
by the inhabitanis of its coasts, the ^etio-
wimi hay. The country around is occu-
pied chiefly by the Menominy TwHi^ing,

Green Bat ; a poet-town, military post,
and seat of justice for Brovim county, Auch-
igan, at 8. end of Green Bay, near the en-
trance of Fox river ; 160 S.WJtf ichilimack-
inac,220 N. by W. Chicago, 366 £.Ptairie
du Ghien, by the Fox and Ouisconsin riv-
ers, W. 972. Lon.8r58'W.;lat.4SPN.
Here is a setdement, extending about four
miles.

Green Cloth ; a board or court of jua-
tioe, held in the counting-house of the
king^ household, composed of the knd
stevrau!d and officers urider him, idto ait
daily. To thia court is oommitled tlie

ORfiEN CLOTH-GREENE.

thxtge and oveniriit of die king's houM-
hold in matters oijustieefiiidjrovenuneDty
with a power to conect all o&ndera, and
to maintain the peace of the verge, or ju-
nadiction of the court royal, which is ev-
erj way about 200 yards from the last
gate of the palace where his majesty re-
sides. Without a wanant first obtuned
from this court, none of the king's servants
can be arrested for debt

GasENE, Nathaniel, a major-general in
the American arihy, was bom, May 22;
1742; near the town of Warwick in lUiode
Isiaiid. His father was an anchor smith,
and, at the same time, a Quaker preacher,
whose ignorance, combined with the &-
naticism of the times, made him pay little
attention to the worldly leanung of his
children, though he was very careful of
their moral and religious instruction. The
fondness for knowledge, however, of
young Greene was such, that he devoted
aO the time he could spare to its acquisi-
tion, and employed all his trifling gains in
procuring books. His propensity for the
life of a soldier was early evinced by his
iwedilection for woiks on militacy subjects.
He made considerable proficiency in the
exact sciences ; and, after he had attained
Ins twentieth year, he added a tolerable
Rtock of lesal knowledge to his other ac-
quisitions. In the year 1770, he was elect-
ed a member of tne state legislature, and,
in 1774, enrolled himself as a private in a
company called the Kentish Guards. Af-
ter the batde of Lexington, the state of
Rhode lalttid raised w^ was termed an
array of observation, in order to assist the
forces collected in Massachusetts, for the
purpose of confining the British vrithin
the Emits of Boston, and chose Greene its
commander, with the title of major-gene-
ral. His elevation from the ranks to the
hc»d of three regiirients, may give some
idea of the estimation in which his milita-
ry talents were held. June 6, 1775, he
aasumed his command before the lines of
Boston ; and, not long afterwards^ general
Wariiingtoo arrived, to take the command
in chief of the American forces. Between
these two distinguished men an intimacy
moo connmenc^ which was never inter-
rupted. Grreene accepted a commission
from congress of bngadier-general, al-
though, under the state, he held that of
major-general ; preferrbig the former, as
it promised a lai^r sphere of action, and
the pleasure of s^rvins^ under the imma-
diatie command of Washington. When
the American army had followed the ene-
my to New Yoric, after the evacuation of
BoflUm, they oicamped, partly in New

VOL. VL 5

Yoifc and partly on htms Island. Tha
djvioon posted upon the iSand was under
the orders of Greene ; btit, at the lime of
its unfortunate afiSiir with the enemy, he
was suffering under severe sickness, and
seneml Sulhvan was hi command. When
Be had sufiiciendy recovered his healdi,
he joined the retreating army, having pre-
viously been promoted to the rank of ma-
jor-general, and was appointed to com-
mand the troops in New Jersey destmed
to yratch the movements of a strong de-
tbchment of the British, which had Deen
left in Staten island. December 26, 1776^
when Washington surprised ^e English
at Trenton, Greene commanded the left
wing of the American forces, which wa^
the nrat diat reached the town, and, hav-
ing seized the enemy's artiUeiy, cut off
their retreat to Princeton. Next summer,
sir WiUiam Howe havinr embariced widi
a large force at New York, for the purpose
of landing on the eastern shore of the
Chesapeake, and thence marching to Phil-
adelplua, Washington hastened to expose
him ; and, September 11, the batde of the
Brandywine took place, in which the
Americans were defeated. In this afiair,
Greene commanded the vanguard, togeth-
er with Sullivan, and it became his duty to
cover tlie retreat, in which he fuUy suc-
ceeded. After ffcnoral Howe had obtain-
ed possession of Philadelphia, the British
army, in consequence of this victory, en-
camped at Germantown, where an attack
was made upon it by Washington, October
4, 1777, in which Greene commanded the
lefl wing. The disastrous issue of this at-
tempt is well known ; but it has been as-
serted, that the lefl wing was the only part
of the American army which had the good
fortune to effect the service allotted it that
day. The next service upon which ffen-
eral Greene was engaged, was that oi en-
deavoring to prevent lord Comwallis fiiom
collecting supplies, for which he had been
detached into the Jerseys, with 3000 men;
but, before Greene could bring him to ai)
acdon, he -had received reinforcements,
which gave him so great a superiority, that
the American general was recalled by the
commander-in-chief. In March of the
following year, Greene, at the solicitation
of Washington, accepted the appointment
of quarter-master-general, on two condi-
tions; that he should retain his right of
command in time of action, and that he
should have the choice of two assistants.
At the batde of Monmouth, in theensuinff
month of June, he led the r^ht wing of
the second line, and mainly contributed to
the partial succesB of the Americans. Af^

GREENE.

ter this, he coDtinuod Qn|;aged in discharg-
inff the duties of his station until Aqgust,
when he was sent to join Sullivan, who,
with the forces under his command^ aided
l^ the French fleet under D'Estaing^ was
preparing to moke an attempt upon New-
port in Khode Island, then in possession
of the enemy. The command of the left
wing of the troops was assigned to Greene.
The enteiprise, nowever, &iled, in conse-
quence of some misunderstanding be-
tween SuDiyan and D'Estaign; and the
consequent retreat of the American army
was covered by Greene, who repulsed an
attack of the enemy with half their num-
ber. When general WashlD^on, alarm-
ed for the suety of the inmsoDs on the
North river, repaired to West Point, he
left Greene in command of the army in
New Jersey. The latter hod not been
long in that command, before he was at-
tacked, near Spriu^eld, by a force much
superior to his, under sir fieniy Clinton ;
but the enemy were renulsed. though they
burned the village. This amur happened
June 23. October 6^ he was appointed to
succeed the traitor Arnold in the com-
mand at West Point In this station, how-
ever, he continued only until the 14th of
the same month, when he was chosen by
general Washington to take the place of
general Gates, in the chief direction of the
southern army. From this moment, when
he Avas placed in a situation where he
could exercise his senius without control,
dates the most briluant portion of Greeners
career. The ability, prudence and firm-
ness which he here displayed, have caused
him to be ranked, in the scale of our revo-
lutionary generals, second only to Wash-
ington. December 2, 1780, Greene arriv-
ed at the encampment of the American
forces at Chariotte, and, on the 4th, assum-
ed the command. After the batde of the
Cowpens, jrained b^ Moigan, January 17,
1781, he enected a junction with the vic-
torious general, havm^ previously been en-
gaged in recruiting his army, which had
been greatly thinned by dea^ and deser-
tion ; out the numbers of Comwaliis were
still so superior, that he was obliged to re-
treat into Virmnia, wluch he did witli a
degree of skin that has been the theme of
the highest eulogy. He, soon afterwards,
however, returned to North Carolina, with
an accession of force, and, March 15, en-
countered Comwaliis at Guilford court-
house, where he was defeated ; but the
loss of the enemy was greater than his,
and no advantages accrued to them from
the victory. On the coutraiy, Comwaliis,
a few days afterwards, commenced a ret-

rograde movement towaxds Wilmington,
leaving inany of his wounded behind nlin,
and was followed for some time by Greene.
Desisting, however, from the pursuit, the
latter marched into South Carolina, and a
batde took place, April 25, between him
and lord Rawdon, near Camden, in which
he was again unsuccessful, though again
the enemy wore prevented by kim from
improving their victory, and, not long after,
were obliged to retire. May 22, having
previously reduced a nuoiber of the forts
and garrisons in South Carolina, he com-
menced the siege of Ninety-Six, but in June
the approach of lord Rawdon compelled
him to raise it, and retreat to the extremity
of the state. Expressing a determinatioo
*^to recover South Carohna, or die in the
attempt," he again advanced, when the
British forces were divided, and lord Raw-
don was pursued, in his turn, to his en-
campment at Oraugeburg, where he was
offered battle by his adversary, which
was refused. September 8, Greene ob-
tained a victory over the British forces un-
der colonel Stewart, at Eutaw Springs,
which completely prostrated the power of
the enemy m South Caroluia. Greene was
presented by congress with a British stand-
ard and a gold medal, as a testimony of
their sense of his services on this occasion.
This was the last action in which Greene
v^ras engaged. During die rest of the vmr,
however, he continued ui his command,
stmggling with the greatest difficulties, in
consequence of the want of all kinds of
supplies, and the mutinous disposition of
some of his troops. When peace released
him from his duties, he retumed to Rhode
Island ; and his journey thither, almost at
every step, was marked by some private
or public testimonial of gratitude and re-
gard. On his arrival at Prmceton, where
congress was dien sitting, that body unan-
imously resolved, that "two pieces of field
ordnance, taken from the British army at
the Cowpens, Augusta, or Eutaw," should
be presented to him by the commander-in-
chief. In October, 1785, Greene I'epaircd,
with his famil}'^, to Grcoraia, some valuable
grants of lands near savannah having
been made to him by that state. He died
June 19, 1786, in his 44th year, in conse-
quence of an inflammation of the brain,
contracted by exposure to tlie rays of an
intense sun. General Greene possessed,
in a great degi^e, not only the common
quality of physical courage, but that forti-
tude and unbending fli'mness of mind,
which are given to few, and which ena-
bled hun to bear up against the mostcmel
reverses, and stmggle perseveringly witlv

GREENE--OREENLAND.

and finaly flurmoiint, the most formidable
dfficuhieB. He was eror collected in the
most trying aitiiatioiia, and prudence and
judgment were distinguiahing traits m. his
cfauacter. In his disposition, he was mild
and beneirolent ; but when it was necessa-
ry, he was resolutely severe. No officer
of the rBYC^utiouafy army poeaessed a
higher place in the confidence and affec-
tion of Washington, and, probably, none
would have been so well calculated to suc-
ceed him, if death had deprived his coun-
tiy of his services duiing the revolutioua-
ly struggle.

Grebn Gaoe ; a variety of the plum, the
rema daude of the French, usually consid-
ered the most delicious of all. It is large,
of a green or slightly yellowish color, and
has a juicy, greenish pulp, of an exquisite
flavor.

6REK!n.Ain> (Groerdand); an extensive
country of North America, belonging to
Denmark, the extent of which is un-
known. Since lieutenant (now ci^rtiun)
Pany advanced fit>m Baffin's bay into
IjifMaiHter sound (1819), it has been sup-
posed to be SB islfmd. As far as it is now
known, it extends fh>m]at 59° 38^ to78°N.
Its soatfaem point is cape Farewell On
the western coast fie Davis's straits and
Baffin's bay. It is divided into two
parts by a chain of mountains passing
throngh the middle of the country from
north to south. Greenland was settled
800 years ago, by two colonies from Nor-
way and Knmaric, of which the one oe«
cupied the eastern, the other the west-
em coast Their intercourse was carried
on by sea, the mountains rendering anv
communication by land impossible. A
Runic stone found in Greenland in 1824
(now in the museum of northern antiqui-
ties at Copenhagen) proves the eariy dis-
covery of^ Greenland from Scandinavia.
Hie western colony, afler numerous vi-
oaaitudes, still exists. The population in
the southern part to the river Frith (68°),
amounted, in 1811— 13, to 3583: northern
Greenland conUuned only 3000 natives.
From 67° to 69°, the countiy is uninhabit-
ed. The fate of the eastern colony,
which in 1406 consisted of 190 villages,
and had a bishop, 13 parishes and two
monasteries^ is unknown. Up to that tinie,
16 bishops had been sent from Nonvay in
regular succession ; the 17th was prevent-
ed by the ice from reaching the land. Da-
nish saflora, m the 16th and 17th centuries,
attempted, without success, tO' land on the
easiem coast Attempts made in 1786
and 1889, by the command of the Da-
nish government, failed. This lost East

Greenhmd, Von Epger, in his Prize En«r
(1794), maintains, is the country how call-
ed JuiUmenshaab^ on the western coast ;
but a manuscript now in the library at
Dresden, maintams that the old settlement
of Ostert>yirde was actually on the east-
em coast of Greenland.* A traveller of
the 14th century, Nicolas Zeno, describes
Greenland as it existed in his time. In
1818, England sent an expedition to the
Polar sea, because the ice at the north
pole was said to have decreased, and a
north-west passage was befieved prac-
ticable ; the ships returned, however,
without accomphshing any thing. C^
tain Scoresby found the eastern coast free
from ice in 1882 ; he sailed along it fitim
75° to 69^, and examined it with care (see
his Journal qf a Voyage to the JSTorOwm
WliaU'Fiahtnf, &c., ifiS). To tiiis trav-
eller we are indebted for the latest and
most correct accounts of East GreenhuHL
which refute Egger's opinions. He found
fields producing luxuriant giaas, but no
inhabitants. He met, however, with some
houses, containing household utensils and
hunting apparatus, and a wooden coffin.
The English captain Sabine describes
the eastern coast of Greenland (see his
Experiments to dctermmt Vtt Figure of the
Earihy &c.),fix)m 72° to 76° N. latitude.
He also found it impossible, on account
of the permanent mass of ice, to approach
the eastern coast north of 74° ; his exam-
inations proved that there was no current
which cairies the ice from those coasts
towards the south. The western coast
was also cut off, in the middle of the 14th
century, from its usual intercourse with
Norway and Iceland, by a dreadful plague,
called the Uack deaffu In the reifn of
queen Elizabeth, Frobisher and Davis
again discovered tins coast of Greenland,
from that time, nothine was done to ex-
plore this countiy, untfl the Danish gov-
ernment, m 17^1, assisted a clerg^an,
Hans Egede, with two ships, to elfect a
landmg in 64° 5^, and estabfish the first
European setdement. Good Hope {God-
7iaab)y on die river BaaL Egede found
the countiy inhabited by a race of people
which had probably spread fiwm the we*
over Davis's straits, and which resembled
the Esquimaux of Labrador in their lan-
guage and customs. In 1733, the Mora-
vian Brothers were induced by count Zin-
zendoif to attempt the establishment of

* The Paris Archvoe* du Ckriatiamtmi aayt,
that an expedition, which left Copenhagen in
May, 1890, has found the long lost colony, pro-
fessing the Christian religion, and speaknig tba
Norwegian of the 10th century.

GREENLAND.

■ettlemeDts and tmmamm on these inhoe-
IMtable ahoree. There are now on the
woBtem coast of Greenland twenty set-
tlemenlB, of which the most soutfaeiiy,
lichtezuui, is sittiated in 60^ 34^ N. kti-
mde. Near it is the second setdement,
JuIuuia^B Hope {Mianm shaab): in the
vicinity, the ruins of an old Icelandic and
Norwegian church are sdU visible. Far-
ther to the north lie Frederic's Hope,
lichtenfels. Good Hope, New Hennhut,
Zudrertiut, Holsteinbuiv, Egedesminde,
Christian's Hope, JacobehaTen, Omenack
and Upemamijck, in 73^ Sy N. latitude, the
most northern settlement, now occupied
only by Greenlanders. The goveiuor of
South Greenland has his seat in Good
Hope, and the governor of Noith Green-
land is station^ at Guthaven, on the isl-
and of Disco, in 7(P N. latitude. There
are five Protestant churches on the coast,
in which the gospel is preached in the
Danish and Greenlandisn dialects. The
Moravian Brothera have three houses of
public worship in Lichtenau, Lichtenfels
and New Hermhut The natives, called
by the oldest Icelandish and Norwegian
authors, iS%reBtt^«, belong to the Esqui-
maux fiimily, which is spread over all the
northern part of America, to the western
coast. They are remarkable for their di-
minutive stature ; their hair is daric, long,
stringy, eyes black, heads disproportionate-
ly large, legs thin, and complexion a brown-
ish yellow, appnroaching to olive green.
This, however, is panly owing to their
filthy manner of livmg, and paiSy to their
food and occupations, as they are constant-
h^ covered with blubber and train oil.
The women, being emfdoyed, from eariy
youth, in canying heavy loads, are so
broad shouldered, as to lose all feminine
appearance, Thefar dress contributes to
this effect 4 th^ wear the skins of seids
and reindeer. The short coats, the trow-
sers and boots of both sexes, are 9II made
of the same material. In extremely cold
weather, they wear a shirt made of the
skins of biras, particulariv those of the
sea-raven, the eider duck, &c In winter,
they live in houses of stone, vrith walls
two feet in thickness, covered with brush-
wood and tur( and with an entrance so
small, that it can be passed only on the
hands and feet Windows are seldom met
with in these huts ; those m^ich they have
are made of the intestines of whales and
seals. The height of the house never
exceeds six foet ; it is 12 feet wide, and of
about the same length. It consists of one
room only, with a raised platform on one
side, covered with aeal-skin, which serves

the double purpose of a bed and a table.
Lamps, supplied with train-oil, are kept
constantly burning, as much for the sake
of vrannth os of h^t The smell from
so many oil lamps, together with that of
the fish, raw skins and greasy inhabitants,
is hardly to be endured by unaccustomed
nostrils; and the filthy condition of the
huts breeds immense quantities of ver-
mhi. When the snow melts, which is
aenerally the case in May, the roof of the
house generally sinks in, and the Green-
lander then spreads a ten^ which is cover-
ed with seal skin, and surrounded with a
curtain of the intestines of whales; the
interior is arranged like the winter estab-
lishment. Their utensils and tools are
simple, but ingeniously contrived. They
consist of bows and arrows, lances, jave-
Hus and harpoons. Their canoes are
made of hubs, bound by whalebone, and
covered with dressed seal-skin. They
show a wonderful skill in managing thenit
even in the most boisterous ^roatber.
They also use sledges, drawn by dogs, in
which they sometimes go from 90 to 40
miles fix)m the land on the frozen sea.
The swiffaiesB ef these animals is such,
that in 9 or 10 hours, they accomi^ish a
distance of about 60 miles. The language
of the Greenkmdera is the same as that
apoken by the Esquimaux in Labrador^
and on the shores of Hudson's bay. Tra-
ces of it are also said to be found on the
north-west coast of America, as for as
Nootka sound. The variety in the forms
of the verbs, in combination with the pro-
nouns, is a remarkable ])eculiarity of this
language. The superstitious Gieenland-
en pay great respect to their on^ekokM or
sorcerera, who are at the same tmie their
priests and physicians. They have but
very rude notions of a Supreme Being.
During the prevalence of the north-east
winds, the cold is often so great, that the
mercury sinks to 4SP bek>w the freezing
pomt of Fahr. The west winds cominff
from Davis's straits are always damp» and
accompanied by thaws. The baas of the
mountains and rocks is a fine-grained
granite, vrith gneiss, mica slate, horn-
blende and whitestone. Many interesting
and uncommon minerals are found — ^mag-
netic iron ore, gadolinite, ziroon, schorl,
tourmaline^ the finest garnets, sodafite,
iolite, and hypersthene of a beautiful
light blue. Among the animals are the
polar fox, the white hare, the reindeer,
the white bear, the arctic fox, the walrus,
various kinds of seals, and the narvaL
The Greenland whale (see fVhde^ and
WhaU^FMay) is found in greet numben

OREENLAND--OIIEENWICHL

and of an «noniious mze. Of the biids,
the principal is the cinereoiie eagle ; the
snowy owl, and others of the falcon tifte,
inhabit the high rocks ; the water-fowl
are numerous. A species of mosquito is
ezcee^tingly troublesome in the warm
weather. The exports ore whalebone, oil,
sjdns and furs, eider down, the horns of
the nanral, &c The imports are provis-
ions, gunpowder, cotton and linen goods,
in» and glass wares, &c. In the inlets
and bays which intersect the coast of
Gfeenland, immense masses of ice are oc-
comulated during a series of years, which,
being loosened during the heat of sum-
mer, lose thdr points of support from the
8faore,and plunge into the ocean with athun-
deling noise. Being afterwards set adrift
by the euirents, they embarrass the naviga-
tion of the Polar seas, and become the terror
of the mariner. Those masses of ice are
fbnned both of fiesh and of salt water, and
sometimes rise more than 500 feet above
the sui&ce of the water. The salt water
ice occurs in immense fields, of many
thousand fiohoins in lencth and breadth,
divided by fissures, but followinff close on
each other. When the wind begins to
blow, and the sea to rise in vast billows,
the violent shocks of those masses of ice
against each other, fill the mind with as-
tonishment and terror. The coasts of
Greenland are surrounded by many thou-
sand isbinds of different sizes, on which
the native inhabitants fi^uently fix theur
residence, on account of their good situa-
tion for sea game.

Okeen MouifTAiirs ; a range of moun-
tains^ commencinff in Canada, and extend-
ing sooth through Vermont, Massachu-
setts and Connecticut They divide the
waten which flow into the Connecticut
fiom those which flow into lake Cham-
pbui and the Hudson. Among the high-
est summilB in Vermont are Mansfield
mountain. Camel's rump, and Killington
peak. West rock, near New Haven,
ComL, 10 the southern termination of the
chain. The natural growth upon these
mountains is hemlocl^ pine, spruce, and
other evergreens, and they derive their
aame from their green appearance.
Thcnneare many fine farms amonf these
mountains, and much of the laud upon
them is excellent for grazing.

OREEif ocK ; the chief seaport of Scot-
land, on the south bank of the river
Clyde, which has in front an extensive
and beautifiil bay. The manufiictories of
the place are sugar-houses, rope-walks,
aoop and candle wortcs, tan works, potte-
ries, bottle and ciystal wortcs, hat manu-
5*

ftctories, extensive fbunderies and manu-
ftctories of steam engines and chain ca-
bles ; to these may be added ship-build-
ing, which is carried on to a great extent
The herring-fishery is the (mlest branch
of the indusuy of the place. The har-
bors are very qiacious, and are frequented
bv vessels fiK>m all quarters of tlie world.
The dry docks are elegant and commo-
dious; the one lately erected, near the
custom-house, is considered the fiist in
the kingdoHL Population in 1838, over
SSsOOO. Lon.0«18'58"W.; tot55*>57'y'N.
GRKEifBTONE. (Sco HoTvhUndt.)
GaEEifvijLLB CoLLKGB, pleasantly sit-
uated, 3 miles from Greenville, Tennessee,
was mcoiporated in 1791 The college
hall is a neat building, about 60 feet long,
and 25 wide, of 2storie& The college htti
a libiaiy of about 3500 volumes, a small
philosophical apparatus, and funded prop-
erty to the amount of about $6000.

GaEEif wicH ; a market-town of Eng-
land, in Kent, on the southern bank Si
the Thames, fbnneriy the seat of a palace
in which the kings of England occasion-
ally resided. It was built oy Humphrey,
duke of Gloucester, and called Placentuu
Henry VII enlarged it, and his son, Heniy
VIII, finished it Queen Elizabeth and
queen Mary were bom within its walls,
and Eklward VI died here. King Charles
II took the greater part down, ibd com-
menced a new palace on its site, a part of
which forms one wing of the present hos-
pitaL This consists, at present, of four
extensive piles of building or wings, en-
tirely detached from each other, but so
connected by the conformity of their
dimensions, their figures, and the general
arrangement of their decorations, as to
form a complete whole. The principal
front, which is neariy all of Portland stone,
faces the Thames on the north. The two
northern vrm^ are separated by a square
of 270 feet wide ; the two southern are
connected by two colonnades, 115 foet
asunder, supported by 300 double col-
umns and pilastera ; while a spacious
avenue through the hospital from the
town, divides these squares from each
other, and thus also divides the whole of
the northern half of the builiUng from
the whole of the southern. In the middle
of the great square is a statue of Geoige
II, sculptured by Rysbrach. Extending
865 feet along the fiiont, the intervening
bank of the Thames is formed into a ter-
race, with a double flight of steps to the
river in the middle. The pensionera lo
be received into the hospital must be
aged and maimed seamen of the navy, or

GR££NWICH-€REGORT L

of the nuarchant aervice, if wounded in
battle, and mariDea and foreignera who
have served two yean in the navy. .ITie
total expense of the establiabment is
£69,000 per annum,wliich is appropriated
to the support of diwut 3000 seamen on
the premises, and 5400 out-pensioners.
Connected with this establishment is a
naval asylum, designed for tlie support
and education of the oiphan children of
seamen. On a rising ground in the paik,
160 feet above low water mark, and com-
manding a rich and varied prospect,
stands the royal observatory, celebn^ed
b^ the great names with which it is asso-
ciated. The private buildings are hand-
some, but the streets are in general irreg-
ular. Population of the puish in 1821,
20,712; 5)1 miles £. London bridge.
The lonsitude in English geography is
calculated from the meridiui of Green-
>vich. Lat.51«'29'N.

Greffikr ; foimeriy, in the United Prov-
inces, the first secretary of state ; in
France, the clerk of a court of justice.
(For the etymology of the word, see Count)

GaiGOiRE, Henry, count, former bish-
op of Blois, whose civil, literary and re-
ligious career has been characterized by
love of liber^, active philanthropy, in-
flexible integrity and ardent pieQr. He
was bom at Vetro in 1750 ; he was a
member of the states-general in 1789,
and was one of the five eccleaastics pres-
ent at the session of the Tennis Court.
In the constituent assembly, he was die
tinguii^ed for the boldness of his opinions
on civil and reli^ous liberty, and for the
doquence by which he supported them.
At this eari^ period, he began his efibrts
in &vor of the Jews and blacks, which
place him high among the friends of hu-
rrumiQr. He was the first among the cler-
gy to take the constitutional oath. In
the convention, Gr^goire advocated the
abolition of royalty (September, 1792),
but endeavored, at the same time, to save
the king, by propoeinff that the punish-
ment of death should be abolished. His
absence on a mission witli three members
of the convention, prevented him from
voting on the trial of the kin^ ; but he re-
fused to sign the letter of his three col-
leagues to that body, demanding the sen-
tence of death. In the reisn of terror,
when the bishop of Paris imdicated his
dignity, arid several of the clergy abjured
the Christian reliaon in the presence of
the convention, ibe bishop of Blois had
the courage to resist the stonn of invec-
tives finom the tribunes, and threats finom
theMountaio* ** Are sacrifices demanded

fiir the countiy?" he said ; <*Iam accuitom-
ed to make them. Are the revenues of my
bishopric required ? I abandon them
without regret Is relip^ion the subject of
your deliberations? It is an affidr beyond
your iurisdiction. I denoand the fireedom
of reuffious worship." At a later period,
we find him in the senate, forming one of
the minority of five, opposing the acces-
sion of the first consul to the throne, and
alone in opposing the obsequious address
of that boay to the new sovereign, bi
1814, he sijped the act depoeong ue em-
peror, and, in 1815, refused, as member o£
the institute, to sign the addUwnid acL
On the restoration of the Bourbons, he
was excluded fix>m the institute, and from
lus episcopal see ; and, on his election to
the chamber of deputies in 1819, he was
excluded from a seat by the royalist ma-
jority. Since tliis unmerited indisnity,
this venerable philanthropist and sdiolar
has devoted himself to his literary and be-
nevolent labors. Died in 1831.

GnEGORiArr CALEimAii. (See Calendar.)

Greoort, bishop of Neocssorea, in
which place he was bom, of pagan pareDts,
was called, on account of the many mira-
cles which he is said to have performed,
Thmtmaturgus (the worker or mirades).
He was distinguished for his eloquence,
and was a pupil of Origen. He died
about 270, flis works were published
(in Greek and LatinJ by Vossius, with
scholia, Mayence, 1604, 4to.

Gregory of Naziarzen, a celebrated
teacher of the Greek church, bom about
328, at Arianzo, near Nazianzum, in Cap-
padocia, was at first presbyter and after-
wards bishop of Nazianzum. He was
the intimate niend of Basil, and a violent
enemy of the Arians. Among his pupils
in eloquence, Jerome was the most dis-
tinguished. He died about 390, and left
many works, of which a complete edition
(Greek and Latin) was published at Paris,
1609, 2 vols, folio.

Grboort of Tours (his proper name
was Gtorgt FUxrenJtimu) viras bom in Au-
vergne (SO), made bishop of Tours in
573, shov^ sreat firmness in the dread-
fhl times of Chilperic and Fredegonde
(q. v.), and died Nov. 27, 59a Besides
his eidit bo(dcs on the virtues and mira-
cles of the saints, he lefi HisioruB Eede$.
FVancorum L3ni X, which he brought
down to the year 591, and which, not>
withstanding its marvellous tales and its
want of method, has much interest, as
being tlie only historical work of the time.

Grboort I, pope; called also the
Oreai, He was bora at Rome, of a noble

GREGORY I*-^REGORY VIL

fionily) about 544 ; and, having jreceived an
education suitable to his rank, he became
a niember of the senate, and filled other
employments in the Mate. Italy was then
subject to the emperors of the East, and
Justin II appointea him to the important
post of prefect or governor of Rome ;
which, after having held it for some time
with great reputation, he nssigned. The
death of his rather put him in possession
of great wealth, which he expended in the
foundation of monasteries and charitable
institutions. Disgusted with the worid,
he took the monastic vows himself^ and
became a member of one of his own es-
tablishments. Pope Pelagius II sent him
on an embassy to C(mstantinople, and
made him papal secretary after his return
to Rome. On the death of pope Pela*

S'ua, in 590, he was chosen his successor,
e displayed great zeal for the conversion
of heretics, the advancement of mona-
chjsm, and the rimd enforcement of ce-
libacy among the clergy. His contest for
eccleoastical superiority with John, patri-
arch of Constantinople, laid the founda-
tion of the schism between the Greek and
Latin churches, which has subsisted to
the present day. llie converaon of the
Anglo-Saxoc3 to Christianity ^vas a project
hororoble to his zeal and abilities. (See
AufTUstiny SL) He died in March, 604.
The works ascribed to this pope are very
numerous, and have been frequentiy pub-
lished. The most complete edition is that
of the Benedictines or St Maur (Paris,
1705, 4 vols, folio), under the superin-
tendence of ftitber Denis de St Martha,
who, in 1697, published a life of St Greg-
ory the Great His genuine writings con-
sist of a treatise on the Pastoral Duty,
Letters, Scripture Commentaries, &c.

GiLEOoaT OF Ntssa ; bom at Nyssa, in
Cappadocia, younger brother of fiasil the
Great, celebrated as an ardent defender
of the Nicene creed, and also for his elo-
quence. He died in his native city, of
which he was bishop, some time sAer
394. Editions of Ids works were pub-
lished at Paris in 1573 and 1605, and 1615
and 1638 (3 vols, folio).

GREooar VII f HUdebrond). The year
and the place ot the birth of this great
pope are uncertain. Some accounts say
that be was bom at Sienna, others at
Soana, in Tuscany ; others still, at Rome.
It is, however, certain, that he lived at
Rome when a child, and went to France
when a younff man, where he became
connected vrith the monastery at Cluny,
and returned to Rome in 1045. His his-
tory becomes more knovm after the time

of his return to the

where Leo IX saw him on bis journey
through Fnnce. He returned with this
pope to Rome, and fiom that time, ai-
thongh in the back ground, he played an
important part ; and by the influenoe
which great minds always exercise over
ordinary men» he directed the measures
of Leo and several foUowingpopes. On
the death of Alexander II (1073), cardinal
Hildebrand was raised to the papal chair.
He now labored vrith the grei^est enersy
to accomplish those plans for which he
had prepared the way by the measures
whicn the preceding popes had adopted
through his influence. It was the object of
his ambition not only to place the whole
ecclesiastical power in tne hands of the
pope, but to make the church entirely
mdependent of the temporal power. He
wished to found a theocracy, in which
the pope, the vicar of God, should be the
sovereign mler, m political as well as ec-
clesiasncal matters — a bold idea, which he '
probably conceived in consequence of
the wretched state of all civil auth<mty.
He therefore prohibited the marriage of
priests, and abolished lay investiture, the
only remaining source of the authority
of princes over die cleray of their domin-
ions. In 1074, he issued his edicts against
simony and the marriaffe of priests^ and,
in 1075, an edict forbidding the clergy,
under penalty of forfeiting their offices,
from receiving the investiture of any ec-
clesiastical dignity from the hands of a
layman, and, at the . same time, forbidding
the laity, under penalty of excommunica-
tion, to attempt tne exercise of the inves-
titure of the clergy. The emperor Heniy
IV refused to o^y this decree, and Greg-
ory took advantage of the discontent ex-
cited by the despotic character and youth-
ful levity of the emperor, among the
people and princes of Germany, to ad-
vance his own purposes. 'In 1075, he
deposed several German bishops, who
had bought their offices of the emperor,
and excommunicated Ave imperial conn-
sellorsywho were concerned in this oansac-
tion ; and when the emperor persisted in
retaining the counsellors and wpporting
the bishops, the pope, in 1076, israed a
new decree, summoning the emperor
before a council at Rome, to defend him-
self against the charges brought against
him. Henry IV then caused a sentence
of d^)06ition to be passed against the
pope, Dy a council assembled at Worms.
The pope, in return, excommunicated the
emperor, and released all his subjects and
vassals from their oath of allegiance. The

GREGORY VII— DAVm GREGORY.

emperor soon found aU (Jppw Germany
in oppoBiiion to him, at the very moment
that the Saxons in Lower Germany re-
newed the war against him ; and when
the princes assembled at Oppenheim
came to the determination of proceeding
to the election of another emperor, he
yielded, almost miconditionally ; he was
obliged to consent to acknowledge the
pope, whom they were to invite into the
empire, as his judge, to abandon his ex-
commmiicated counsellors, and to con-
sider himself as suspended from the cov-
emment To prevent being deposed by
the pope, Heniy IV (q. v.] hastened to
ItoJi^ where he submittea, at Canoesa
(1077), to a humiliating penance, and re-
ceived absolution. In the mean time, his
fiiends again assembled around him, and
he defeated his rival, Rodolph of Suabia.
He then caused the pope to be deposed
by the council of Brixen, and an anti-
pope, Clement III, to be elected in 1060,
after which he hastened to Rome, and
placed the new pope on the throne. Greg-
oiy now passed three years as a prisoner
in the casde of St Angelo, but could never
be induced to compromit the rights of the
church. He was finally liberated by Rob-
ert Guiscard, a celebrated Norman prince,
whom he had made duke of Apulia ; but the
Romans compelled him to quit the city,
because it had been plundered by the sol-
diers of Robert Gregory then retired to
Salenio, under the protection of the Nor-
man prince, where he died, in 1065. By
the celibacy (q. v.) of the cleigy, Gregoiy
aimed at mcreasmg their, sanctity, and
making them entirely independent of &m-
ily connexions. The same measure pre-
vented the possessions of the church from
becoming mere feudal dependencies on
temporal princes, wliich would have been
the natynd course, if the clerey had be-
oome parents, and, of couise, desirous of
transmitting the estates which they enjoyed
to their children. Matilda, countess of
Tuscany, whom he induced to bequeath
her almost regal possesBions to the papal
see, was his chief^ support Most Protes-
tant writers have accimed him of insatia-
ble ambition ; but the impartial historian,
who consideis the spirit of his whole life,
studies his letters, and observes that his
severi^ towards himself was as great as
towardis others, will judge differently.

r Gregory must be conadered as a great
* "tual conqueror, who rendered tlie
jy independent of the temporal power,
and secured their aafety amid the scenes
of violence with which Europe was fiDed ;
thereby rendering them capable of ad-

vancing the progress of civilization, which
was in great danger of being swallowed
up in barbarism. The papal power,
which he rendered independent of tne im-
perial, was, for age& the great bulvrark
of order amid the turoulence of the semi-
civilized peo]^ of Europe. In capacious-
ness and boldness of mind, he may be
compared to Napoleon. His system un-
doubtedly became unsuitable, like all'
other systems^ to the wants of a more ad-
vanced age ; and the good of mankind,in
the prosresB of time, required that the
teiapond powers should become again in^
dependent of the Roman see.

Greoort, James, a mathematician and
philosopher, the inventor of the reflectijur
telescope, was bom at Aberdeen in 163$
and received his education at the Maris-
chal college. In 10^ he published Op-
tica pmmokif sm abdita Radunrvm r^kxo-
rum et refradartan Mfsterioj Gtomdnct
enucteaia (4to|, explaining the idea of the
telescope which bears his name ; and, in
1664, visited London for the purpose of
perfecting the mechanical construction of
the instrument Disappointed by the dif-
ficulty of getting a speculum ground and
polished of a proper %ure, he suspended
his desiffn, and set on on a tour to Italy.
He staid some time at Padua, wh«« he
published, in 1667, a treatise on the Quad-
rature of the Circle and Hyperbola (re-
printed at Venice, in 1668, with additions).
On his return to England, he vras chosen a
fellow of the royal society, whose Transac-
tions he enriched by some valuable papers.
He was chosen professor of mathematics
in the university of- St Andrew's, and, in
1674, was invited to fill the mathematicai
chair at Edinburgh, whither he removed ;
but, in October, 1675, while pointing out
to his pupils the satellites of^ Jupiter, he
was struck with a total blindness, and died a
few days after, in the d7th year of his age.

Gregory, David ; nephew of the pre-
ceding, and the heir or his splendid tal-
ents, and emulator of his fame. The sub-
iect of this article was educated at Edin-
>ui|fa, where, in 1664, he was elected
protesBor of mathematics ; and the same
year he published a mathematical treatise
from his uncle's papers, with important
additions of his ovni. Ifis lectures fiist
introduced into the schools the Newtonian
pldloBophy. In 1691, he was chosen profes-
sor of astronomy at Oxford, though he had
the celebrated Halley for his competitor— a
circumstance wliich laid the foundation of
a firiendly intima^ between these mathe-
maticiana In 1695, he published, at Ox-
find, CaioptneiBa Dioptric4K SpherkizEk-

OREChORY.

mania (dvoA in wbkh he conodofi those
bniDchee or optics chiefly as respecta the
coostruction of tekeoopes, porticukuiy
thoee of his uncle and sir Isaac Newton,
In 16d7, he gore the fiist deinonstnuion
of the properties of the Catenarian Curve ;
and in 1709 appeared his most celebrat-
ed production, d^rtrofioitiMe Phvsicizet Ge-
omxtrUft EUtnenia (folio). The object of
this wQik is to explain Newton's seome-
tiy of centripetal forces, as fiir as ms dis-
coveries are founded on it ; and to exhib-
it in a more fiuuiliar fi>nn the astronomical
part of the Prindpia, In 1703, he pub-
nshed an edition of the books of Euclid,
in Greek and Latin ; and he afterwards eu-
mged with doctor HaUey iu editing the
Conies of Apollonius. HemedOctlO,1710.
GfiEeoRT, patriarch of the Eastern
Greek church, a victim of the fimatical
policy of the Porte, was bom in 1739,
and educated in Dimitzana, a town in Ar-
cadia in the Norea. He studied in several
monasteries, finally on mount Athos (q. v.),
lived as a hermit, was made archbishop at
Smyrna, and, in 1795, patriarch of Con-
stantinople. When the French occupied
EfTpt, m 1796, the Greeks were accused
of treating secretly with them, and the
rabble demanded the head of die patriarch,
who, in ftct, by his pastoral letters, dis-
suaded the Greeks fix>m taking up arms
for the French. Selim III himself declar-
ed Gregory to be innocent, but banished
faun ibr security to mount Athos. He was
soon after restored to his former dimity.
But in 1806, when the progress of the
Russian arms, and the appearance of an
English fleet before Constantinople, re-
newed the iiiry of the Mussulmans against
the Greeks, and the life of the patriarch
was threatened, although his exhortations
had again prevented the Greeks from any
hostile movements, Selim banished him
a second time to mount Athos. After an
interval, Gregoiywas a third time appoint-
ed patriarch. The apostolic virtues of
k>ve, charity and htnnility, gained this
prelate universal esteem ; he lived very
simply, was strict vrith regard to the mor-
als of the Greek clergy, and spent his in-
come for benevolent objects, bestowing
chanty on the poor, without regard to the
religion which they professed, promoting
schools, the art of pnntingin Constantino-

Ele, and the publication of useful books,
n particular, he promoted the establish-
ment of schools of mutual instruction in
Scio, Patmos, at Smyrna, Athens, Sparta
(Misitra), and in Candia. His sennons
and pastoral letters manifest his piety, tol-
erance, and knowledge of roanUnd. He

tranalaled the epistles of the apqstle Paul
into, modem Greek with a coounentaiy.
He constanUy exhorted his bretiiren to
obedience and patient submission to the
will of God But, iu 1891, when the Greek
insurrection broke out in the Morea, his
native country, he became an object of
suspicion to the Porte, and nothing but the
hope of preventing the massacre of all the
Greeks at Constantinople, wluch had al-
ready been determined ujpon, could induce
him to excommunicate (21st March, 1831)
Ypsilanti, Suzzo and all the insurgents, as
the divan demandeid, with threat& At the
same time, he issued a pastoral letter to the
clergy, declaring submission to the Porte to
be the duQr of the faithful After the execu-
tion of the prince Morousi, the grand- vizier
confided to Gregory the custody of the fiim-
ily of this prince. Without his knowl-
edge, but perhaps by the assistance of a
priest in the patriarchal palace, the family
escaped on board a vessel, which, by the
aid of the Russian ambassador, took tiiem
to Odessa. The old man did not doubt
that this would decide his fete. He im-
mediately went to the grands-vizier, the
fiuious BenderU Aii Pacl^to inform hini
of the event. The vizier laid all the blame
on him ; but he was neither imprisoned nor
subjected to triaL The grand vizier had
determined to intimidate the Greeks by
an act of violenceyet unprecedented in
Turkish history. They had already been
exposed, for several weeks, to the fanatical
rabble of Constantinople, which prevented
the greater part of them finm attending
chui«h on the first day of the Easter festi-
val (April 33). The paniarchread the hish
mass surrounded by his bishops, with the
usual ceremonies ; but, as he left the church,
the ianizaries surrounded him, and seized
the bishops. A natural respect prevented
them fix>m laying hands on the venerable
old man ; but th^ commander, having
reminded them of the order of the grand-
vizier, they seized the patriarch, in his
robes of office, and hanged him before the
principal gate of the church. Three bish-
ops and eight priests of the patriarchate,
shared tiie same fate ; they were all hang-
ed before the gates of the churches or the
palace, in their canonical robes. The
body was not cut dovim till tiiie 24th, when
it was given up to the lowest of the Jews,
who dragged it through the streets, and
threw it into the sea ; but, bem^ prevailed
upon by a sum of monev, they did not
smk it, so that some Greek sailors recover-
ed it during the night, and carried it to Odes-
sa. Here, with me permission of the em-
peror, the marQrrdom of the patriarch wis

GREGORY— GRENADIER.

oelefarated by the Rueaian archimandrife
TheqphiluB, with a mBgnificent funeral.
This act of barbarity, towards an old man
of eighty years, was followed bv the de-
stnictioD of many churchee, and the most
sava^ treatment of the Greeks in Con-
stantmople ; but instead of exciting fear,
it had the opposite effect The enthuaasm
of the Greeks for their religion and fiiee-
dom was increased, the war was carried
on with more animosity, and reconcilia-
tion became more difficult, and, afler some
additional atrocities, impossible, (See
Greece^ RtvoluHan of Modern,)

Greifswai.de; a town in Hither Pome-
rania, belonging, since the war of 1815, to
Prussia. Lat 54P 4^ 35"' N. ; Ion. ld» 39^
SS^'E. Population in 182Si, 8060. From
1648 to 1815^ it belonged to Sweden, ex-
cept that from 1715 to 1721 it was in the
possession of Denmaik. In 1455, Wrat-
iriaus IX, duke of Pomerania, founded
the univenity here. It does not flourish
like the other Prussian universities, and
contains only 130 students ; for the govern-
ment does not see fit to support it as they
do the others, and, at the same time, does
not wish to break up so ancient an estab-
lishment It is one of the few German uni-
versities which have a right to assist in
choosing the professors. The university of
Greifiwalde nominates new profbeBoi8,and
the king appoints. The town is well built

Qreitada. (See Oranada.)

Grenada, New ; fenneriy a vicerovahy
of South America, called the JVWo Jiifig-
doni of Orenada, now forming the greater
part of the republic of Colombia ; bounded
N. by the Ganbbeen sea and Guatimala, E.
by Venezuela and Guiana, S. by the Ama-
zon and Peru, and W. by the Pacific
ocean. Lat 6° S. to 12° N. ; 1200 miles
in length, and 276 in mean breadth. This
country, together with Venezuela, was fer-
meriy called Terra ISrma, It was former-
ly divided into three audiences, Panama,
Santa F^ and Quito, and subdivided into
twenty-four provinces ; but a new division
has fa«en made since New Grenada and
Venezuela have been united, and form-
ed into a republic. There are univer-
sities at Santa F^ de Bogota, Quito,
and Popayan. The principal rivers are
the Magdalena, Cauca, Apure, Meta, Pu-
tumayo and Caqueta. New Grenada
abounds in the most sublime mountain
scenery. The great chain of the Andes
traverses this country from north to south,
and within the audience of Quito are
found the lofly summits of Chimborazo,
PiDchinca, Cotopaxi, &c The mountains
of this country are extremely rich in gold

and silver, and have also mines of platina,
copper, lead and emeralds. The value of
gold and silver produced annually is staled
at £650,000 stening. There are two mints,
at Santa F^ and Popavan. (For further in-
formation, see CoUmbia, and Fenezuda)

Greicade ; a hollow sphere of iron,
differing fit>m a bomb bv the smallness of
its diameter. The smallest grenades^ or
those thrown by the hand, are called hand
prenadee ; they are from 24 to 3^ inches
m diameter. The f\isee is calculated to
bum fit>m 12 to 15 seconds, so that time
is allowed for throvring them. The short
distance to v^ch they can be thrown, and
the danger of accidents, have occasnoned
them to be disused. The small grenades
are now <mly employed for wliat are call-
ed, in French, perdreaux^ several of them
being festened to a board, and thrown
from mortars. The grenades in general
use are thrown from howitzers, and are
of very difibrent sizes,' from 2 to 20
pounds weight They are chiefly calcu-
lated to act against cavalry and distant
columns, where they may do great harm.
In the battle of Wajnam, one grenade
killed and wounded 40 men. As Sie util-
ity of large grenades at sea is acknowl-
edged, but o^ections exist to the use of
howitzers of large calibre, the (J. States
introduced the use of oY9l grenades in
1815, which may be fired fit>m 12 and 24
pounders. The Ehiglish imitated this, and
made the grenades with a spiral thread on
the surfece, that the opposition of the air
might give them a rotatory motion, and
thus more certainty of direction. Greriades
are often thrown from cannons. During
the siege of Gilwaltar, they were thrown
3000 yards upon the Spanish works.

GaEifADrER ; oriffinally a soldier destin-
ed to throw the liand grenades. (See
Grenade,) Soldiers of long service and
acknowledged bravery were selected for
this service, so that they soon formed a
Idnd of BiU, They were the first in the
assaults. When hand grenades went out
of use, the name grenadier was pre-
served, and the troops so called generally
formed one battalion of a regiment, dis-
tinguished by the height of tne men and
a particular dress, as, for instance, the hi«h
b«ir-skin cap. This continues to be the
case in most armies. In the Russian and
Prussian armies, the grenadiers form .
whole regiments belonging to corps d^ar-
mie of the guards. With the French, the
grenadier company is (and was under Na-
poleon) the first of each battalion. Tlie
dragoons among them also had grenadier
companies, wihkh were afterwards united

GRENADIER-ORESHAIL

under tile name «f gmmdkn h dnewA^ a
tind of cavalry between cuiraaBiera and
dngoQoa» and belonging to the guarda;
and the dragoons again bad eomfM^fmet

GaxHOBiiB ; an old city, situated in the
former province of Daupbiny, now capi-
tal of the department of the Is^, 113
leagues S. E. fiom Paris ; lat N. 45° \V
42^°; k>n. £. 5° 49" 57" ; with 22,149 in-
habitants. It is the see of the suffiragan
biabop of Lyona^ the seat of several tri«
bunala, and the head-quarters of a military
division. Grenoble is a fortified place.
An old fortress called the Bastik, on a
hill of the same name, commanda the
wh<rfe dlj. It contains several noble ed-
ifices ; among others, the palace of the
IsBt constable of France, Lesdigui^res.
Here is also a law school, a royal college,
and a public library with 55,000 volumes
and valuable manuscripts. Grenoble is
the centre of a great manufocture of
^ovea, and contains tanneries and impor-
tant distilleries. Commerce is facilitated by
tfaeMre. A number of distinguished men
have been natives of this place ; for in-
stance, Bayard, CondiUac, Mably, Vau-
canaon, &c The bridge over the Drac
is a angle arch 120 feet high, and of 140
feet span. Grenoble is a very old place,
and of Gallic origin. In the time of the
ABobfoges, it was called Calami which
uame it retained under the Romans, until
Gratian enlarged it, and called it Chratior
nopoUs, Remains of antiquity which
have been discovered here, leave no doubt
reiipecting its origin. It has been the see
of a bishop since the 4th centuiy. Gren-
oble was the first city of importance,
which opened her gates to Napoleon, on
his return from Euxl The emperor, as
his handful of troops were preparing for
the attack on the garrison of Grenoble,
advanced alone, and, uncovering bis breast,
said aknid to the soldiers, S^deHparm
DOttt, #'i2 en ed im sad qid veuUU tuer wn
gMrtdf 9on empenur it k peut^ k void
He was answered by cries of Vioe Vempt"
DMr, and joined bf the soldiers.

Geknviixe CWiUiam Wyndham Gran-
ville)^ lord, son of George Grenville, who
was chancellor of the exchequer at the
time of the passing of the sUunp act
(1764), was bom in 1759, educated at
Eton and Oxfoid, and eariy broufffat for-
ward in public lifo by his mend William
Pitt. He entered parliament in 1785, and
waa speaker of the house of commons
when, m 1789, he was made secretary of
the home department In 1790, he was
created a peer, by the title of baron C^n-

viDe, and the nelct year became secrataiY
of foreign afihira, and continued in tfatf
post till 1801, when he retired vrith Bfr.
ritt, on the king's refusal to make the
conceasions in fiivor of the Catholica,
which had been promised by die ministry.
On the death of Pitt, in 1^ lord Gren-
ville became first lord of the treasuiy, at
the head of the coalition ministry, and in-
curred the public reproach by holdinff, at
the same time, the place of auditor of the
exchequer, that ia, auditor of his own ac-
counts. In 1809, the resignation <^ lord
Castlesea^b and Mr. Caiming having left
lord Liverpool the only eecretaiy of state,
official letters were addressed to eari Grey
and lord Grenville, proposing the forma-
tion of a combined ministtv. Earl Grey
declined all union at once. Lord Grenville
v?ent to London, but, on the next day, also
declined the proposed alliance. He has al-
ways been consistent on one subject, that
of concesaioDS to the Catholics, of which
he has ever been the constant advocate.
GaxsHAM, sir Thomas, a merchant of
London, was bom in 1519, and educated
at Gonville hall, in Cambridge. His fkther
vras agent of the king's mone^ afiSurs at
Antwerp; and, bis successor havmg brought
them into a bad condition, yoim|[ Greeham
vras sent over, in 1552, to retrieve them.
He acquitted himself so weU, that in two
years he paid ofif a heayv loan, and raiaed
the king^ credit considerably. On the
accession of Elizabeth, he was deprived
of his office ; but it vras soon restored to
him, with that of queen's merchant, and
he vras also knighted. In 1566, he plan-
ned and erected a hmt or exchan||;e, for
the merchants of London, in imitation of
that of Antwerp. In 1570, queen Eliza-
beth, visiting the new building, solemnly
proclaimed it the rtnfA txchangt; which
name its successor, since the ^ of Lon-
don, still continues to bear. The troubles
in the Low Countries intermpting the loans
fiom Antwerp to the crown, sir Thomas
induced the moneyed men in London to
join in a small loan, which was the com-
mencement of the great advances since
made fiom the same body. He founded
a colle(^ in London, notwitbstandiug the
opposioon of the univeraity of Cambridge,
and devised his house for habitations and
lecture-rooms for seven professors, on the
seven liberal sciences, who were to re-
ceive a salary out of the revenues of the
royal exchange. Gresham college has
since been converted into the modem
general excise-office ; but the places are
still continued, with a double salary for
the loss of the apartments, and the lecturea

(»JESSHAM-OR£V]LLEL

are DOW siven in the roysl exchange. He
<fied guddenly in 15791, at the age of oxty.

Gresskt, Jean Bapdste Louib, an
ameafole French poet, bom at Aniiens,
1709, entered die order of the JesuitB in
hJ8 16th year, and left it 10 yean after-
ward^ on account of the attention excit-
ed by hia poem Ver-VerL In Paris he
had the good fortune to increase diis rep-
utation; and, m 1748^ he was elected a
membei of the academy. He lived at
Amiens, where he filled an office in the
financial department, and where he mar-
ried a rich lady. After the death of Lou-
is XV, he Tinted Paris, and was chosen to
congratulate Louis XVI, in the name of
the academy, on his accession to the
throne. The court and the city were
bodi decorous of beholding the man ^n4io
had been so successfiil in delineating
them. But the expectation which had
been formed firom nis earlier works, was
fi&r from bein^ answered by his academi-
cal discourse m reply to the inaugural ad-
dress of Suard, and in which he painted
the follies of the capital. His pictures
were distorted and exaggerated. He
died soon after, in 1777, without leaving
any children. His agreeable mannere,
and his integrity of character, gained him
distinguished fiiends. Louis XVI grant-
ed him, in 1775, letters of nobility. His
Ver-Vek is disdnguished for wit, vivacity
and interest, and its value appears die
more remai^ble from the poverty of the
subject Cresset has written much that is
good, and some thines merely passable.

Gresson; the loftiest summit of the
Vosges, 4002 feet high.

Gretna Green, or Graitnet ; a village
and parish in Scotland, in Dumfries, on
Solway fnth, eight miles north of Carlisle.
It is the first stage in Scotland from Eng-
land, and has for more than 70 years been
famous as the place of celebration of the
marriages of fugitive lovers finom Eng-
land. According to die Scottish law, it is
only necessary for a couple to declare be-
ftire a jusdce of die peace, that they are
unmarried, and wish to be married, in or-
der to conclude a la^'ful marriage. It
has been calculated that about S mar-
ria^ take place here annually. A black-
smitli was a long time the justice of
the peace. His usual fee was 15 gumeas.

Gr^trt, Andr6 Ernest Modeste, a
French composer of music, bom at
Liege, 1741, ^owed as early as his 4th
year his sensibility to mueacal rhythm.
At this age, being left one dajr alone, the
noise of water lioiling in an iron pot ex-
(!ited his attention ; he began to dance to

the sound, which resembled that of a
drum. He then wished to discover die
origin oi this bubbhng in the vessel, and
he overturned it into a hot coal fire. The
explofflon was .so quick, that, rendered
senseless by the steam and smoke, he fell
to the ground much burnt This accident
brought on a long ilhiess, and weakened
his eyes for life. In 1759, Gr^tiy went to
Rome to perfect himself in music. Hav-
ing, while at Rome, exhibited some Ital-
ian scenes and symphonies, he was en-
gaged by the manager of the theatre, Al-
berti, to set to music two tntermezn. His
fiiBt eftbit met with great success. The
piaise which he obtained from Ficcini
was the most flattering to him. Bein^
well received and esteemed in the capit^
of Italy, Gr^try pursued his studies there,
until he became desirous of making him-
self known at Paris. On his way to
France, he stopped at Geneva, and set to
music the opera Isabella and Geitrude,
which was brought out at Paris. The
success of this production determined
him to go to Pans, to find a theatre and
performers wordiy of him. Here he was
obliged, fiir two years, to struggle against
numerous difficulties, before he obtained
finom Marmontel the Huron, the text and
music of which were both vnitten in six
weeks. The piece vras performed in 1769,
with complete success. The LuciUy a
comedy in one act, which appeared soon
afler, veas received with still greater ap-
plause. He now devoted himself exclu-
eively to the theatre, and composed 40 op-
eras, of which Le TabUaupadmd^ ZSmnre
et Jkior^ 12 Ami dt la Maism^ La fausse
Magie^ ht Jwgtmad de J^KdaSy VAnuxtd
JalMtx, Les ^shwrnens vnprHnUj CoUfutte
h la CouTj La Careoane^ EaouL, Riehard
OBw-de-Lionj Anacrian chez PolicraU^
are still played with applause. Gr^try,
like Pergolea, took declamation as the
ffuide of musical expression. He was in-
ferior to Cluck in depth, -and he could
never arrive at the fulness of Mozart. In
1790, he published his Minwires au Essais
aurlaMuaiqiie, The first volume contains
an account of the musical career of the
author. He wrote La VMU and R^Uxiom
d'un SaUUare, He died in 18J3, at £r-
m6nonville, in Rouseeau's hermitage.

Greville, Fulk (lord Brooke); an ac-
complished courtier and ingenious writer,
and a great encourager of learning and
learned men. He was bom in 1M4, at
Beauchamp court, Warwickshire, the
family seat, then in the poesession of his
father, sir Fulk Greville. He entered
Trinity college, Cambridge, which he

(mEVILLE.*4GatEY.

iflierwaids quitted fyr Oxford ; 4uid, hav-
ing made the tour of Europe, presented
himself at court, where he soon rose high
in the fiivor of Elizabeth. James ako
distingmshed him by his fiivor ; but the
jealousy of Cecil induced Greiille to re-
tire fipom public life, till the death of that
statesman restored him to the court He
now rose n^>idly, filling in succession the
posts oC under treasurer and chancellor ixf
the excheouer, and, in 1620, obtained a
barony. Under Charies I, he continued
to enj(wthe roval countenance till the
90th of September, 1628, when, convers-
ing with an old servant of the familv,
respecting certain dispositions in bis will,
the latter, considering his legacy diroro-
poitioned to his services, replied to hia
widi great insolence, and, on receiving a
reprimand, stabbed him in the back, and
he expired inunediately ; the aasaaain in-
stantly committed suicide with the same
weapon. Lord Brooke was the founder
of a historical lecture at Cambrid^ and
enjoyed the friendship of sir Phihp Sid-
ney, Spenser, Jonson, Shakspeare, and
most of the master spirits of the ace.
The bent of his own genius evidently fed
him to the study of poetry and histoiy.
An octavo volume ot his miscellaneous
writingB was printed in 1670, and there
is abo extant a life of his fiiend Sidney,
by his hand. The envy of Cecil, who
denied him access to the necessaxy rec-
ords, prevented lus carrying mto execu-
tion an intention he had formed of writing
a history of thQ wars of the Roses.

Gret, lady Jane ; a young and accom-
plished female of royal descent, whose
disastrous fate, as die victim of an unprin-
dfAed relative's ambitious projects, has
created an extraordinary interest in her fa-
vor. She was the daughter of Heniy
Grey, marquis of Dorset, afterwards duke
of Su^lk, by the ladv Frances, daughter
of Chari^ Brandon, duke of Suffolk, and
Mary, younger sister of Henry VIII, in
whoioe reign lady Jane was bom, accord-
ing to tfa^e common account, in 1537. She
displayed much precocity of talent ; and
to the usual accomplishments of females,
she added an acquaintance with the learn-
ed languages, as well as French and
Itafian. Roger Ascham has related, that,
on making a visit to Brodflate hall, he
found lady Jane, then a ffiii of fourteen,
eogagped in perusing Plato's Dialogue on
the Immortali^ of the Soul, in the orig-
inal Greek, while the rest of the fiunify
were fauntinj^ in the paric She owed her
early pnvliciencv in Uterature, in some
meaauTQ, to her learned tutor, Aylmer, af-

TOX. Tl. 6

terAfiuds bishop of London,; and fiom
him she imbibed au attachment to IS!ot-
estantism. The Oriental as well as the
classical languages are said to have been
fomiliar to £er, and she is represented as
having been altog^her a younff person
of uncommon genius and acquu^ments.
But the latter are less singular than mi^t
be supposed by those wiio do not take m-
to account the general taste for the culti-
vation of Greek and Roman lore, which
prevailed among both sexes for some time
after the revival of literature in Europe.
Lady Jane Grey was a woman of talents,
but not a [nodigy ; and Mrs. Roper, the
interesting daughter of sir Thomas More,
with lady Burleigh and her learned ssters,
may be adduced as rivals in erudition of
the subject of this article. The hteraiy
accomplishments of this unfortunate lady,
however, do less honor to her memory than
the Sfurit with which she bore the annihi-
lation of her prospects of sovereignty, and
the diegrace uid ruin of the dearest object
of her afiections. The tale of her eleva^
tion and catastrophe has been often rela-
ted, and has funiished a subject for dra-
matic composition. The most material
cm^umstances are her marriage with lord
Guilford Dudley, fourth son of the duke
of Northumberuind, in May 1553 ; which,
though it oriffinated in the ambitious pro-
jects of her rather-in-law, was a union of
affection. The duke's plan was, to reign
in the name of his near relation, in whose
fovor he persuaded king Edward VI, on
his death-Ded, to settle the succession to
the crown. On the decease of the king,
lady Jane had the good sense to refuse the
proffered diadem; but, unfortunatelv, she
afterwards consented to accept it, oeing
influenced by die importunities of her
husband. Her pageant reign had lasted
but nine days, when Mary, the late king's
elder sister, was acknowledged queen ; and
Jane exchanged a throne for a f)rison.
She and her husband were arraigned,
convicted of treason, and sentenced to
d^uh ; but their doom was suspended,
and they might, i)erhai)s, have been al-
lowed to expiate their imprudence by a
temporaiy confinement, but for the ill-ad-
vised insurrection under sir Thomas Wy-
at, in which the duke of Suffolk, lady
Jane's father, was weak enouirh to pietrtid-
pate. The suppression of this rebellion
was followed by the execution of lady
Jane Grey and her husband. Mary sus-
pended die execution of her cousin three
days, to afford time for her conversion to
the CathoEc fiiith ; but the queen's chari-
table puifMMe was defeated by the eon-

GRBT-^OREYHOUND.

mancy of kdj Jane, who defended her
opimoDB against the arguments of the
^uniflh dimes sent to reoson with her,
and prepared henelf widi finnness for
her approaching fate. She was beheaded
on Towor-hai, February 12, 1564, her
husband having previoosly suffered the
same day. A twoK, entitled The precious
Remains of Lady Jane Grey (4to.), was
published directly after her execution ;
and letters and other pieces ascribed to
her may be found iu Fox's Mart^logy.

Giusr, Charles, earl, a distmguished
whiff and pariiamentafy orator in Eng-
lanc^ was bom in 17^ and was educat^
at Eton and Cambridge. On leaving the
imiveni^, he travelled oa the continent,
and, soon after his return toEnsluidfWas
returned to parliament, by ftmify interest,
lor the county of Northumberland, befi>re
he had reached his twentieth year, but, of
course, did not take his seat till he be-
came of age. He afterwards represented
the borough of Applebv, till he succeed-
ed to the peerage. He had not been long
in the house, belbre he became conspicu-
ous for liis industiy and his ability in de-
bate. He was a warm Foxite, and be-
came a member of the whig club, and of
the society of Friends of the People. He
was one of the most zealous oppoeers
of Pitt's war against France, and declared
in parliament that the discomfiture of the
duke of Brunswick by the French amy,
was a triumph of every friend of liberty.
On the deatn of Pitt, the whiss havinf
come into power, Mr. Grey (then lord
Howick) was made first loiti of the ad-
miralty, and, on the death of Fox, secreta-
ry of state for foreign affiurs. The dis-
solution of this ministiy soon followed,
and lord Howick not long after was trans-
ferred to the upper house by the death of
his fither, but tor many years took little
pait in public afiirs, and resided in retire-
ment on his estates in Northumberland.
On the re«gnation of lord Casdereagh
and Mr. Canning, which was soon follow-
ed by that of the duke of Portland, the
rest of the ministera made overtures to
k>rd Grenfifle and eari Grey, which were
declined. Lord Grey opposed the restric-
tions on the regency of the prince of
Wales; and when thoso restrictions ex-
pired, in 1812, the offer of a seat in the
ministiy was renewed, and again rejected.
In the trial of the unfortunate queen Car-
oline, lord Grey was one of the most ac-
tive and zealous of the peers in her be-
half: and to his eloquence and zeal^ the
resuh of the trial is in a great measure
atnogt He has always advocated refiinn

and the emancipation of the Cathohcs.
In domeedo fife, eari Grey appean in the
most exempbiy hg^t Mainme de Stael
used to apeak in terms of the highest ad-
miration of the ftmily scene at FaUow-
den house. On the 16di of Nov., 1830^
the duke of Wellington aimounced ius
resignation of the office of firat lord of
the treasuijr, and eari Grey was unmedi-
ately appomted his successor. He is
therefore, at present, prime minister of
Engkmd. (See Grtai BritamJ)

Gretrouiid {came frtduSy Linnteus).
This variety of the canme race is distin-
guished by a greater length of muzzle
man any other dog, a very low forehead,
occasioned by the want of frontal sinuses,
diort lips, thm and long legs, small mus-
cles, contracted beOy, and semipendeot
ears. There are several sub-varieties de-
scribed by naturalists, as the Irish grey-
hound, the Scotch, the Russian, the Ital-
ian and the Tuikiah, all which, though
differing in size and intelligence, posBesB
the general characteristics of the variety.
The common greyhound is of a beautiful
and delicate formation, and is univeisolly
known a& the fleetest of this race of am-
mals. We have no information when
the name gr^Aound was introduced, the
former appellation of gazehound being
very apphcable to a dog which hunts b^
sight and not by smell. Its derivation is
evideatly from Grattu, Grecian. The
greyhound has been for many centuries
in the highest estimation, and in ancient
times was considered as « most valuable
present The ardor and velocity of the
greyhound in pursuit of its game, have
uways been a matter of admiration to
sportsmen, and of various opinions as to
the difference of speed between a well
bred greyhound and a race-horse. It
has, 1^ the best indges, been though^ that
upon a flat, the horse would be supenor to
the dog; but that in a hilly countiy, the
latter would have the advantage. The
natural simplicity and peaceable demean-
or of the greyhound has sometimes in-
duced a doubt, whether the instinctive sa-
ffacity of this particular variety is equal to
«iat of some othera of the species ; but,
fiom numerous observations, it appeare
that it possesses this attribute in a in^
degree^ Greyhound pups, during the first
seven or eight months, are extremely un-
couth, awkward and disproportioned, af-
ter which period they begin to improve in
form and sagacity. Thev reach their full
growth at two yean. The distinguishing
traits of superiority are supposed to con-
sist in a fine, soft, flexihie skin, with thin

GaUBYHOUNI>-43SB)LEY.

aUky liotfv a gnat length of noBe, ooo*
tnetiDf jmdually from the ejfe to the nos-
tfily a fal^ claar and penetiatiiig eye,aDiaU
mn, erect head, iong Deck, broad breast,
width aerosB the Bhauldera, rouiidneas in
the iibS| back neither too long nor too
short, a conOracted belly and flank, a ffreat
depth fiom the hipa to the hocks of the
hind legs, a strong atom, round foot, widi
c^ien omform dens, Ibro i^gs stmight, and
flfaorter than the hinder. Accoidins to the
quaint description given in a won print-
ed in 1496^ bv Wynken de Wode, a grey-
hound should be

Headed lyke a make,
Neckyed lyke a drake,
Fouyed lyke a catte,
Taytled lyke a ratte,
Syded lyke a feme,
And chyned lyke a heme.

Greyhoonds bred in countries where the
ground is chiefly anble, were formerly
supposed superior in speed and bottom to
those produced in limy situations ; that
ofMnion, however, is completely super-
seded, and the contrary proved to be the
case. If fed with coane rood, greyhounds
V liable to cutaneous and oth-

er anecaons.

Gretwacke, or Gilao Wacxb, is a
name originally applied by Werner to a
fnigmenlBd or recomfiosea rock, consist-
ing of mechanically altered pcations or
frannents of quartz, ipdmatea eky slate
and flinty slate, cemented by a basis of
clay state, — tbe imbedded particles not
ezceedii^a Ibw inches in aiametor,and
sometimes becoming so minute as to be
no longer visible, when the rock was de-
nominated ^Txw twidfce date. As this for-
mation came to be examined more exten-
sively in ether countries, the term my-
waeke was extended so as to embrace
nearly all fragmentary rocks, whose me-
chanical structure comes within the above
description, however diversified the ingre-
dients may be in their nature or dimen-
sions, or whatever may be the nature of
the cement, whether siliceous or argilla-
ceous, piovkled only they are anterior to
the new red sandstone and coal forma-
tion. The reason of this extension was,
that the greywacke of Werner was found
to pofls by insensible degrees into rocks,
which, notwithstanding they were obvi-
ously produced by the same causes, and
occupied the same relative situations with
his rock, were, nevertheless, excluded
tram coalescing with it by the too limited
character of his definition. So much di-
▼enity, however, exista amonff the varie-
ties of this rock, diat it has been found

convenient to diatingoadi them by aspa-
race names. Thus we have gr^fwadU
tiaU when the innedienti are very com*
minuted, grtywoM vrfaen they are of
middling size, puMt^^aloM when they
are rounded, congfomaraU when they are
from four or ^^^ mches in diameter to the
size of a man% head and hirger, griJMont
when the concretions are hard and sili-
ceous and the paste siliceous also, and M
ltd sandstone when colored red by the
peroxide of iron. The fiiunnents which
compose the rocks of this formation, are
evidendy the debris of the primaiy rocks
that have been broken down by some
powerful catastrophe, and mixed vrith
more recent beds at the period when they
werefomun|{. They occupjr a place next
to the primitive rocks, often m an alteniat-
ing series with mountain limestone, and
beneath that class of rocks denominated
seetrndary, between the formation of which
and the greywacke a considerable period
must have elapsed, as the fiiagments of
the latter invariably consist of fewer
rocks, and never of the upper strata.
Greywacke but very rarely contains or-
gamc remains; but the hmestones and
sbites, with which it alternates, present
theni in considerable quantity, and such
as belong togenem almost exclusively un-
known at present, and which never occur
in the upper strata. Though the (poki of
Hungary and Siberia is found in this rock,
still it cannot be said to be prolific in met-
als or other usefid minerals. When fiiw
mined, it forms a valuaUe building stone.
It is the material of which the fortifica-
tions at Quebec in Lower Canada ara
chiefly constructed. Greywacke is very
extensively distributed in Europe. It
forms the eastern declivity of the moun%
tains of Brazil, and abounds throughout
the chain of the Alleghanies. The variety
termed con^omeratej occurs extensively in
the vicinity of Boston and upon the isnvMi
of Rhode Island ; at t^e latter locality, it
occurs in connexion with the anthracite
coal. The old red sandstone forms an
extensive deposit in the valley of the
Connecticut, fiom Deeifield, Mass., to
Long Island sound, and again in New
Jersey, bordering upon the Hudson river.
The fu^ varieties of it are much em-
ployed in building, under the name of
freestone, A quany of it exists at Chat-
ham, direcdv upon the banks of the Con-
necticut, which gives employment to
neariy 200 men.

GaioLST, Jeremiah, a celebrated lawyer
of Massachuaetts berore the revolution,
was born about the year 1705, and receiv-

CHUDLEY-^RIFFIN.

ed hiB degree ot Harvard college in 173S.
His first occupation in Boston was that of
an assistant in the public grammar school,
in which capacity he contmued for several
years, during w^ch he studied theology,
and occasionally preached. He ailerwaitls
devoted himself to the law, in which pro-
fesBBon he became eminent. Soon after
he was admitted to the bar, he instituted a
weekly newspaper, called the Rehearsal.
The first numbco' was published Septem-
ber 29, 1731. In this journal he wrote ar-
ticles, literary and political, for a vear,
when the increase of his professional busi-
nesB obliged him to relinquish it His
writings exhibit ingenuity and originality^
fervor and energy. Having been elected a
member firom Brooklihe of the general
court of tlie province, he became a decid-
ed opponent of the measures of the min-
istry, and manifested a warm attachment
to liberal principles. He was, neverthe-
less, appomted attomey-genend of the
province of Maasachusetts Bay, and, in
that capacity, was obliged to perform the
unpleasant duty of defending the obnox-
ious writs of assistance. The celebrated
James Otis, who had been a student in
his office, was his op])onent, and wholly
confined him. He died in Boston, Sep-
tember 7, 1767, aged about 62 years. Mr.
Gridley was a man of a high, elevated and
ardent spirit, always more anxious for
feme thaA ibr wealth.

Gries, John Dietrich, a German schol-
ar, the translator of Tasso, Ariosto and
Oalderon, was bom February 7, 1775, in
Hambui^, where his fether was a senator.
Against ms own vriah, he was intended for
a merchant, but, in his 17th year, obtained
permisraon to follow his inclination fbr
0tudy. He studied at Jena in 1795, and
was fevorably noticed by the leading belles-
lettres scholars of that time in wrmany
—A. W. Schlcgel, Gothe, Wieland and
Schillei^- whose intimate fiiend he remain-
ed. He fiist studied law ; but various cir-
cumstances, among them an increasing
deafiiesB, determine him to devote Mm-
self entirely to poetry. Several of his po-
ems were published in periodicals i but he
gained celebrity chiefly liy his translation
of Taaso, the hrst in the German language
in the metre of the oriffinal. Three e<&-
tions of this translation have been already
published. The translation of Ariosto's
Orlando Furioso appeared in 1804— l60a
He also undertook to translate Bojardo's
Orlando Innamorato ; but the great lensth
of this poem induced him to wandon the
attempt, after having published 12 cantos.
Since 1815, he has published 6 volumes

of the translation of Oalderon. Gries lives
at present in Jena.

Griesbach, John James (died in 1612)^
first professor of theology at Jena, acquir-
ed a pennanent reputation by his critical
edition of the New Testament, and by
the education of several thousand youth.
Bom at Butzbach in Hesse-Darmstadt, in
1745, he removed, while a child, to Frank-
fert on the Maine, where his father, a
preacher and consistoria] counsellor, died
in 1777. He received his first instruction
at the gymnasium of Frankfort, and re-
moved to the univerEoty of Tubingen in
1762. In 1764, he went to Halle, and af-
terwards spent a year at Leipnc B^cle-
siastical history was the subject of his
studie^ in which Emesti, at Leipsic, aided
him with books and advice. He next un-
dertook, at Halle, an extensive course of
preliminary studies to the criticism of the
New Testament and dogmatic history.
Having resolved to devote himself alto-
gether to the criticism of the text of the
New Testament, he undertook, in 1769
and 1770, a literary journey throu^ Ger-
many, England, Holland and France.
The feUowing winter he devoted, in his
native city, to the elaboration of his mate-
rials; and, in 1771, appeared as a lecturer
in IlaUe, with such applause, in conse-
quence of his celebrated treatise on the
criticisms of Origcn on the Gospels, that,
two y eani after, ho was appointed profeStor.
He now pursued, with indefetigable indus-
try, his plan of an edition of the New
Testament. Having recdved an appoint-
ment to a regular fnofeesorBhip of theology
at Jena, he published a eynopaa of the
Gospels. This was soon feUowed by the
first edition of the whole Testament Its
peculiarity is, that it does not merely con-^
sider the accepted or rejected readhura,
but the different degrees of probability fer
or against them are determined and repre-
sented by intelligible marks in the marffin.
It is to be lamented that he could not fin-
ish, as he had intended, the complete edi-
tion, which was begun in 1796, and ap-
peared simultaneouay at Halle and Lon-
don. He was, however, incessantiy em-
ployed on it till his death, and lived to see
the superi) edition, published 1^ G6scheD,
finished. Gabler has edited Griesbach's
Opusctiia Academica (Jena, 1824., 2 vols.).

GaiFFiif, or Grtphon (xpj>4) ; a febuloua
monster of antiouity, commonly represem-
ed with the body, the feet and clavvs of a
lion, the head and vrings of an eagle, the
ears of a horse, and, instead of a mane, a
comb of fishes^ fins : the back was cover-
ed with feathers. iElian says that its

GRIFFIN--ORIMALDL

bttek was covered with black feathers, its
fareest with red, and Hb wings with white.
CteoaB gives hun blue and shiuing neck
feathers, the beak of an eagle, and fieiy eyes.
Later writers add other narticularB. Ac-
cording to the book Dt Btntm MtturOy it
is larger than an eagle, has on its fore feet
large daws, like those of an eagle, and
others on its hind feet, like those of a lion ;
and it lays an agate in its nest. Drinking
cups are made from its talons. The gni-
fin is so strong, says Ctesias, that he con-
queis all beasts, the hon and elephant on-
ly excepted. India was assigned as the
native countiy of the gnSinB, and it was
believed that they bmlt their nesls on
the mountains; that they could be eanly
eaught and tamed when young, but never
whoa, full grown ; that they found ^Id fai
the mountains, and built their nests of it ; or,
according to other accounts, that they fear-
ed those who sought for gold in the moun-
tains, and defended their ^oung against
their attacks. Bottiger, in bis VasetigeniM-
de, has given much information coacem-
ing the origin of this fabulous animal
He mnintaias that this and similar mon-
steiB are merely the creation of Indian
lapestzy-makers, who, from the most an-
cient times, employed themselves on
strange composiQons of mythological
beasts. The Greeks, who saw this kind
of tapestry at the court of the kin^ of
PeiHB, thought that the animals depicted
on it were really inhabitams of Inoia, so
rich in wonders, and they spread the re-
pent. So much is certain, that the notion
of this bird came from Asia into Greece
in the train of Bacchus. He was, there-
fore^ the symbol of illumination and wis-
dooi.

Gau-LPAazKa, Francis, bom in 1790,
fives, at present, in Vienna, where he has
an office at court In 1816, he attracted
the attention of the public As Mfillner
was led by Werner's 24th of February to
write his Sckuld (Guilt), Grillparzer was
probably excited by the SckulatD write his
MfUhgu (Ancestress)— a piece still more
decidedly belonging to the fetalist school
It is fidl of horrors ; but the poetical lan-
guage, the highly lyric power displayed in
his desc^ptions, and the novelty of the
srJiool of the &talist&, kept this play a long
time on the stage. The young poet pub-
fisfaed, in 1816, his Sappho, and, in 1822,
the Golden Fleece, in both of which the
lyric language is the chief merit In a
subsequent piece (Oltokar), he has wisely
chosen a subject comparatively modem;
it breathes a more dwmatic spirit than his
earlier productions. It appeared in 1824

GaiMALDi (ftmilv) ; one of the fbur
femilies of the higii nobility in Genoa.
The lordship of Monaco (afterwards ele-
vated to a principality) betonged, for more
than 600 years (begimiin^ with 980), to

the Grimaldi. With the Fiescos, thoy al-
ways played an important part in the his-
tory of Genoa, eroecially in the disputes
between the Gibekines and the Guelfi, to
which latter party both families belon|pBd.
Larffe estates in the kingdom of Naples,
in France and Italy, increased the influ-
ence of the Grimaldi, from whom proceed-
ed several eminent men: — 1. BmUenGri'
maldiYras the fiist Genoese who conducted
the naval forces of the republic beyond
the straits of Gibraltar. In the service
of Philip the Fair of France, Grimakli
sailed to Zealand in 1304, with 16 Geno-
ese gaUeys and 90 French ships under his
command. He there defeated and made
prisoner the count Guy of Flanders, who
commanded the enemy's fleet of 80 sail —
2. Aidomo (jtrimaldij likewise, distinguish-
ed himself in the naval service in the first
half of the 14th century. The Cata-
lonians had committed hostilities against
Genoa, which city had been prevented hv
internal discord from punishing the of-
fence. But when a more fevorable mo-
ment arrived, Antonio received the com-
mand of the fleet, with the commisston
to devastate the coasts of Catalonia.
This commission the Genoese performed
but too faithfully. He also defeated an
Airagonese fleet of 42 sail Twenty-one
years after, he suflered such a defeat fi!Om
the combined Venetian and Catalonian
fleets, under the command of Nicolas Pi-
sani, that, of the whole Genoese fleet, only
17 vessels escaped. This defeat (29th of
August, 1353) obliged the Genoese to sub-
mit to John Visconti, lord of Milan, who
promised them protection against their
enemies, the Venetians.—^ Giovanni
Grimaldi m eelebnued for the victoiy
which he sained, May 23, 1431, over the
Venetian admiral, Nic. Travisani, on the
Po, although Carpia^ola, the most dis-
tinguished seneral orchis time, was ready
to support the Venetians, with a considera-
ble army, on die banks of the river. By
an able mancBUvre, Grimaldi separated the
Venetian fleet from die bank, where the
army was stadoned (three niiles below
Cremona), and thus succeeded, not only
in utteriy defeatmg the enemy, but in
taking 28 gallevs and a great number of
transports, with immense spoils. — 4. Do-
mmico GrimMij cardinal, archbishop and
vice-legate of Avignon, fived in the 16th
oentuiy. Before he obtamed these high

OfilMALDL

dignities, Pius V intrusted to him the su-
pervision of the galleys of the States of
tiie Church, and Grinialdi, though already
bishop, was present at the naval batde
of Lepanto (1571 1, on which occasion he
k said to have distinguished himself by
his courage. The annals of the Roman
church also relate of this warlike prelate,
that he succeeded in totally axtupating
the poison of heresy from his diocese.
He died in 1599; and left behind a volume
of letters relative to the events in which
he had been engaged^-5. His nephew
Gtnmmo Grimtudi^ bom at Genoa in
1597, was appointed, m his 38th year, vice-
Imte of Romagna, and afterwards bishop
of Albano and governor of Rome. Ur-
ban Vni sent him as nuncio to Germany
and France ; and the services which he
rendered the Roman court were reward-
ed, in 1643, by a cardinal's hat After
the death of (Jroan, Grimaldi, from grati-
tude, protected his fkmUv, and thus incur-
red the displeasure of Innocent, who re-
fiised, during his whole life, to sign the
bull, consdtutinff Grimaldi archbishop of
Aix. Not till Alexander VII succeeded
Innocent, was he able to enter on his new
office (1^). He endeavored to reform
the manners of the cleigy of his diocese,
for which purpose he established an ec-
clesiastical seminary ; he likewise founded
an hospital for the poor, and annually dis-
tributed 100,000 livres of liis vast proper-
ty in alms. He contributed much to the
eleetion of Innocent XI, whose virtues
he revered. Although he was subse-
quently appointed dean of the holy col-
lege in Rome, he could not resolve to
SMndon the congregatioo intrusted to
him. He died at Aix, in 1685, 90 years
of age.— 6. ^fkhoUu Orimaldi^ bom in
( 1645, was invested with the Roman pur-
^e by Clement XI, in 1706. He died 4n
1717, leaving immense wealth.^ — 7. An-
other GerommOf bom in 1674, was honor-
ed with a cardinal's hat He had previ-
ously been the nuncio of Ae Roman court
at Avignon, and afterwards at Brussels,
in Poland and Germany. He was subse-
quently appointed cardinal legate of Bo-
logna. He died in 1733. — ^B^des these
Grinialdis, we find others of this name,
conspicuous in science and art — L CHo'
ccmo, a writer of the 16th century, whom
Timboschi mentions with great praise.
He was bom at Bologna, embraced the
clerical profession, ^d, as superintendent
of tihe archives of the church of St Pe-
ter in Rome, rendered an important ser-
vice by arranging the whole of this valua-
ble collection. He also attempted to

explain the andent iosoriptions, discovered
during the pontificate or Paul V, by illus-
trative remarks. / list of his antiquarian
and philological writings may be found
in the 4th volume of Sr^ftor. BolognetL
He died in 16Si3.--4i. Giovanni FYancesco,
called Bolognese, fiom his having been
bom in that city, lived in the 17th centu-
ly, and was an eminent painter, architect
and engraver. In the first mentioned art,
he took the Carracci for his model ; he also
studied some titne with Albano. Having
been invited to Paris by cardinal Mazarin,
he painted several frescos in the Louvre.
As an architect, he was no less distin^
guished ; and his engravings are highly
esteemed. Innocent A em^oyed him to
execute the fix3Scos in the Vatican and the
Quirinal. Several of his best painting
are to be found in the church Sta. Mana
del Monte in Rome ; the museum at Paris
also contains some of his best produc-
tions. He died in 1680, 74 years of age.
Alexander, a son of his, is likewise known
as a painter.— 3. F)rance8co Maria^ a Jesuit,
was bom in Bologna in 1613, and was
distinguished as a mathematician. He
assist^ Riccioli in his mathematical la
bors, and afterwards published a work on
the spots on the moon. He also wrote
Phfarieo-malhesis dt Ltamne Cohribut
d hidey aUuqUit cmnexis (Boloena,
1665, 4to.). This leamed Jesuit died in
his native city, in 1663. — 4. JFVaticesco,
yvho likewise lived in the 17th century,
and was bom in the kingdom of Naples,
joined the Jesuits, and is distinguished as
a Latin poet We have several bucolic
and dramatic poems from him, which
evince his talents. He died while profes-
sor of rhetoric in the colle^ of the Jesuits,
in Rome, in 1738, about 60 yeans of age.
— 5. Peter GrtmaZ(^ likewise a Jesuit, was
bora in Civita-Vecchia, lived in the 18th
centuiy, and was, for a long time, a mis-
sionary in the East Indies. There is a
story of him, that, on his retum to Europe,
he invented a machine, by means of
which (1751) he passed throu^ &e air
from Calais to Dover in an hour. It is
mentioned by Pingeron, in his tranalatio&
of the wori( of ftulizta, and by Fontenai,
in his DictUmnmre da JtHtlUt, Since
they give no more exphcit account of the
affiur, and as tins previous experiment is
not quoted In the treatises that appeared
at the time of the invention of the air-bal-
loon (1784|, we must entertain some doubt
of the tmtn of the aerial journey ascrib-
ed to Peter Grimaldi.—^ Coiufanfmc,
bora at Naf>le8, in 1667, died there ui
1750, was a jurik, and was distinguished

GUMALDI-GRIMOD BE LA BETNIEHE.

tor lus knowledM of hietoiy, medkaiie
and theology, lie is, however, princK
pdBf known for his coDttoversy with Boi-
ediclis, 8 hfind advocate of the philosophy
of Aiistotl^ who was then puuishing hiB
LdUrt apometidUj in whicn he made a
fiirioiis attack on Descartes and his fbl-
toweiB. Giimaldi defended the Carte-
siana^ and, in a severe reply, reduced the
fither ad ahsvrdum. — 7, FramctKO AnUmio
(whodied]nNai)ie8in]784) wastheauthw
of some good historical works on Naples,
and the constituti<Hi of that country.

Gkimm, Frederic Melchior, baron of;
counsellor of slate of the Russian eiapire,
grand cross of the order of Wladimir ; a
man of Jetters, whose great reputation has
arisen from posdiumous publications.
He was bom in 1723^ at Ratisbon, of poor
parentB, who, however, bestowed on him
a good education. His tute for fiterature
maniiested itself in his youth, when he
wrote a tragedy. Having finished his
studies, he went to Paris as governor to
the children of the count of echomberg.
Soon after, he was appointed reader to the
duke of Saxe-Gotha. At this period, he
became acquainted vrith Jean-Jacques
BxNisseau, wiio introduced him to Diderot,
D'Alembeit, DHolbach, and other Fuuian
philosophers ; a piece of service which,
according to Jean-Jacques (Con^esmns^
8), he repaid vrith ingratitude. Tne count
de Fri^ made him his secretary, vrith
appointments which rendered his droum-
stances agreeable, and left him at Uberty
to pursue his inclmations. His vanity
induced him to give himself the airB of a
man of gallantry ; and, as he attempted
to repair the ravages of time by means of
cosmetics, the Parisians bestowed on him
the sobriquet of ^fran U BUmt. The ar-
rival of a company of Italian hon^ffbns in
Piaris having divided all the muencal con-
noisseun into two parties, Giimm declar-
ed for the Italian music, and was at the
head of the com de la rtinej a party so
eaBed because they used to sit in the pit,
under the queen's box, whilst the ftiends
of Rameau and the French music formed
the com du m. Grimm wrote on this oc-
•aaion a pamphlet, ftill of vrit and taste,
Le peHt Pn^ihHe de B&ndachbrodOf and,
trfaeD his adversaries attempted to answer
It, completely conftited them by his Leitre
ner ia Muiique Frangaist. Tlieee pam-

CB iintated so many persons against
that they talked of exile, the Bastile,
&4^ ; but when the excitement had sub-
aided, he obtained a general ajmlause. On
ibe death of the count de FTi«se, Grknm
Unas nominated principal secretary to the

dukeof Orleans. The ftme of the Freniii
literati, with whom he was connected, led
to his being empkiyed, in conjunction
with Diderot, to tnnsmit to the duke of
Saxe-Gotha an account of the writingB,
firiendships, disputes, &^ of. the authoiB
of that period. Copies of this curious
conrespondence were abo sent to the em-
mss Catharine II, the queen of Sweden,
StanislauB, king of Poland, the duke of
Deux-PoirtB^ the prince and princess of
Hs8Be-DBrmstBdt,&c Fredenc the Great
eave him marks of great esteem. In 177&
he was ^pdnted envoy from the duke of
Saxe-Gotha to the French court, honored
vrith the title of baron, and with several or-
ders. On the revolution breaking out, he re-
tired to the court of Gotha, where he foimd
a safe asylum. In 1795,the empress of
Russianiade him her minister plempotenti-
ary to the states of Lower Saxony ; and he
was confirmed in that post hy Paul I, and
retained it till ill health obliged him to re-
Unquisb it He then returned to Gotika,
and died there, Dec 19, 1807. His grand
work was puMished in different portions
successively, undo* the foUowing titles —
Cornspondanct lAUfyairtt PhSotSjphique H
CriHqutj adteasie h vn Souoerain SJBU-
magfie^ dqmU IT/O^jviqu^en 178S^ par h
BeSmi de Grtnuvi ^Jpor DIdtrot (Paria^
1812, 5 vctb., 8vo.); (Amapondafice LUU-
rmre^ &c. en 1775, 177«, 1782—1790,
{troiiUme et dermhre ParHe^ 1813, 5 vols.,
ovo.) ; and Corretpondagwe LUUrairej &c.
depms 1753, jusqiCen 1760, {prmibrt
Parti^ 6 vols., 8vo.). A selection from
tills vohiminouB mass of fiterary gossip
vras puUished in 4 vols., 8vo., in French
and English.

Grimm, James Levris Charies; bora in
Hanau, 1785; at present librarian of the
elector of Hcsse-CasBeL By his German
Grammar (2d ed., Gdttingcn, 1832), he
has rendered great service to German phi-
lology^ He was the first who explamod
historically the elements and develope-
meot of the Teutonic dialects. lluB
woric is highly distinguished for acuteness
of Investigation and extensive learnii^,
showing an intimate acquaintance vrith the
European and Asiatic languages. With
his brother William Charies, he has puh-
lished several valuable collections or tho
productions of the early German litera-
ture. A part of his ISndartmd Haui-
m^e&en-^urBeiy Tales (Bertin, 1812—
1814, 2 vob., 12mo.>— has been translated
under the tide German Popular Stories. A
tiiird brother, L Emilius, is an engraver,
and has produced some valuable pieces.

GaiHOp Ds LA RbtniAbe, Alexandre

GROfOD DE LA REYNIERE-.TUE ORISONS.

Bahfaaflar Luirent, the most witty epi-
cure of modem France, member of uie
Aicadiaiis in RoDie,and of several learned
societieB, bom at PariB, 1758, was the son
of a ftrmer-general. A defect in the
foraiation of his hands obliges him to use
artificial fingera, with which he draws,
writes and carves with great dexterity.
Till 1780 he was an advocate ; but a bitter
satire, of which he was the author, having
caused him to be exiled, he subsequently
devoted himself entirely to literature,
passing his time in literaiy clubs, in the
fif^ of the theatres, &c. This eccentric
character, in the splendid circle of his pa-
rents, used to make himself meny at the
pride of rank of the noble wond* He
gave a celebrated banquet, to which no
one was admitted who could not i»ove
himself a bourgeois. Another time he
invited to his house some peraons of rank,
and received them in a room hung with
black, where a coffin was placed behind
each of them. His epicurism equals that
of Apicius or Vitellius. He lived peaceably
through the revolution. In the I '
of Napoleon's reign, he became
throughout Europe by his witty J&fMSMU^
dta Gourmands^ which he dedicated to
the cook of Camboc^r^ (from 1803 to
1812, 8 vols., 18mo.). For the forvenus^
who do not know how to use their wealth,
he wrote, in 1808, Le Mamtd des ,An^
phityyons. His zeal in promoting the
scimee qf ihe palaUj as Montaicne terms
it, led him to form a iuiy of epicures
{digu9tateurs\ who held a monthly ses-
sion in the Rocher de Cancale, at a select
table, where judgment was passed with
black and white oalls, on a luicy tabid
or a fine bUmc-mangar, with all the solem-
nity of the Roman senate of y<Nne, in the
well known turfoot seesioiL Since 181^
Grimod has lived in the country, but
without n^ecting bis literary pursuits.
(Se^e CwJcery.)

Griselda ; the ever-padent wife of the
marauis di Saluzzo,the subject of the tentiii
novwa in the tenth giomata of Boccaccio^
Dteamarm* The marquis's htau idkd
of a wife was a woman of all-enduring
patience. He chooses Griselda, the daugh-
ter of one of his tenants, ill-treals her in
a variety of ways, takes away her two
sons, and makes her believe that Uiey are
killed. At last he turns her out of doora
in her shift, and celebrates a marriage
with a noble lady. But finding that Gri-
selda endures every thing patiently, he
takes her back, restores her two sons, and
treats her as marchioness. No one can
suppose that Griselda is held up as a

model. One might as well have a wax
image for a wife. This subject has been
treated by poets of many other nations ;
for instance, by Chaucer. ChMdaiSfibBre^
fore, not unfrcquendy used to designate a
woman whosejiadence is trial-proof.

GaiSETTE (IVench) ; originally a dress of
coarse gray doth, worn by the females of
the lower classes ; hence it is used for the
females themselves, and is generally used
to signify a belle of the lower dasses. tn
the language of the theatre, grisette signi-
fies an intriguing young girl, of the class
of soubrettes.

Orisons, the ( GraMmdtm) ; the Up-
per Rhaetia of the ancients ; anoe 1789 a
canton of the Swiss confederacy. It is
the largest in the confederacy, containing
9000 square miles, with 75,000 inhabit-
ants, and is bounded N. by Glarus, St.
Gall and the Vorarlberff ; £. bv the Tyrol ;
S. by the Valteline, Milan and the canton
Ticino;W. byUri. The Grison Alps
rise 11,000 feet above the level of the sea ;
the line of perpetual snow is from 8200
to 8400 feet ; they contain 241 f^on
and 56 waterfalls. The Inn and the
Rhine have their sources here. The
lowest point of the porous valley E^-
gadm, at Martinsbruck, is 3234 feet above
3ie level of the sea ; the highest village is
situated at an elevation of 5600 feet The
varieties of climate are, therefore, ver^
striking in the Grisons. The country is
divided into ^ve great vaUeys : — 1. The
valley of the posterior Rhine, which in-
dudes the Rkeinwald, and the vallm of
the Schamser, the Via Mala and the Dom-
lesch. The latter is formed by the jposte-
rior Rhine, is the mildest district m the
Grisons, and contains 22 villajfes, in which
the Romansh, a mixture of^Latin, Ger-
man and Italian, is spoken. The Scham-
ser- Valley contains 9 villages, and is about
7 miles k>ng. Between this and the
Rheinwald is the terrible Via Mala, which
is formed by the posterior Rhine. In
this and in the Rheinwald, the winten
last 9 mouths, on account of their elevated
situation. Two fi>rmidable roads lead to
Italy, one over the Splugen, the other over
the St Aenuud; The former was passed,
in 1800, by the French, under Macdonald.
Lecourbe, with a considerable corps, ven-
tured to enter the latter in 1797.— 2. The
second valley is that of the anterior Rhine,
which extends from the western frontier
and the St Gothard to Coire and Lucien-
steig. Here are the most interesting
points— ^e old Benedictine abbey Disen-
tis, whose literary treasures and buildings
were destroyed, m 1799, by the French;

THE OKISONfi-GROlN.

afeo Bantz (&e town), the old Co]re(q. v.),
where Roman antiquitieB and coins are
found.— a The third valley is that of En-
gadin, or the valley of the Upper Inn,
which stretches fiom south-west to north-
east, and contains, indeed, no important
town, but iAComparable vievTs and pictur-
esque sceneiy. It is one of the most
romantic spots on earth. — 4. The fourth
valley is tormed by the Albula, a river
which rises in the Julian or Septimian
mountains, and fiills into the Posterior
Rhine at Thuaa-^ The fifth vaUey is
that of the Prettigau, situated on the
northern frontier, in tlie neighborhood of
the VorarlbeiY ; Mayenfield is the princi-
pal tovim. — ^The people of the Grisonsare
divided into three leagues (in German,Bil9i-
de ; hence the German name of the canton,
GraubiindUn) ; the League of God's house,
the capital of which is Coire ; the Gray
League, with Ilantz ; and the Leasue of
the Ten Juriadictiona, of which Davos
is considered as the chief place. In these
three places 63 deputies of the leagues
asKmble annually m September, und^
three heads, deliberate on the afiairs or
the canton, and decide, finally, in legal
case& The canton sends 16(X) men to
the arroyof the confederacy, and contrib-
utes 12,000 guilders. About two thirds of
the inhabitants profess the Helvetic Prot-
estant retigion. But the ministers have
so scanty an income, that they are obliged
to maintain themselves by their industry.
The only Ijdn school is in Coire. About
10,000 of the inhabitantB speak an Italian
dialect ; these are in Engadin. About
38,000 mA. the Swiss dialect of the Ger-
man, and more than 96,000, chiefly near
the sources or the Rhine, speak the Ro-
manah or Ladin. This language is a relic
<^the old Boimana nisfico. Contunerce
is much interrupted by the narrowness of
the passes on the fix>nt]erB. The exportei
(chiefly to Milan] are catde, cheese, coals
and rare minerals ; for which grain, salt,
Goen and cloth are received in return. .

Grist Mill. (SeeJIfiZL)

Griswold, Roger, a governor of Ccm-
necticut, was bom at Lyme, in that state,
May 21, 1762. His fa^er had also been
governor, and his mother v^as the daugh-
ter of the fuBt and the sister of the second
soveroor Wolcott He was graduated at
Yale college in 1780, and, three years
afWrwards, admitted to the bar, where he
soon acquired the highest distinction. In
1794, he yns elected a member of con-
gress, in which body his intimate knowl-
edge of the public affiurs and true interests
of nis country, jomed to his great talents,

general information and uiiNoiedeiiieanor^
gave him great infloenco. Preodent Ad-
ams ofiered hini, in 1801, the secretari-
ship of war, which was, however, declin-
ed In 1807 he resig^tied his seat in the
house of representatives. In this year
he became a judge of the supreme court
of Connecticut, and filled the ofSce vrith
much reputatwn. In 1806 he vras one
of the electors of president and vice-pres-
ident In 1809 ne was chosen lieuten-
ant-governor, and in IBll governor, of his
native state. He died in October, 1812L
Governor Griswold was unoonunonW^
amiable and dignified, as well as id>le. m
was^ for sevenf yeaiB^ an eminent leader
of the federal party.

Gritti ; a noble Venetian fiunily. Jh^
dmoy having been taken prisoner by the
Turks, concluded a treaty between the
Porte and Venice (1501). At a later peri-
od, he commanded the Venetian armies
in the war against the league of Cam-
bray, was made prisoner by Gaston de Foix
(q. v.)^ and persuaded Louis XII to secede
m>m the league, and, in 1513, to conclude
a trea^ with the republic From 1523 to
1538, he vras doge. — Ladomao QriUif son
of Andrew, was bom in Constantinople^
during his fitther's captivity ,* served in the
armies of the Turks, among whom he en-
joyed a high reputation ;'eommanded at the
siege of vknna; defended Buda, in 1531 ;
beoune governor of Hungary, but drew
upon himself the popular hatred by the
murder of the iMshop of VITardein. The
Hungarians besiegeo him in Medwisek
whidi they took in 1534. They cut off
his hands m the morning his feet at noon,
and his head in the evenins;

Groo ; a general name for any spiiitu-
ous liquor a»i water mixed tog^tiier ; but
is more particulariy applied to rum and
vrater cold, without suoar.

GB5oEa, Frederic Charies, and Au»xii-
RATH, Henry ; the former bom 1706^ in
Hobtein ; the latter, 1774, in Lubeck ; two
inseparable fiiends and artistB. Gr5ger m
a historical painter, and Aldenrath a min-
iature painter. Both have distinguished
themselves by lithographic productions.
C^oger had to strugglo, in his youth, vrith
the greatest obstacfes, having been an ap-
prentice to a taikvy a turner and a house
painter, and vras often punished for follow-
ing his inclinations for drawing. They
five in Hamburg.

Groin, among buildeni, is the anjgular
curve made by the intersection ortwo
semi-cylinders or arches, and is either
regular or irregular ^—f'q^1llar, as vidian the
intersecting arches^ vdiether semicirculflr

GROm-^RONOVIUS.

or senii-dtimica], are of the same diame^
ten and heights ; and irrmdar^ when one
of the arches is temicircular, and the other
•emi-etiiptical.

Grolmait, Charles Louis WiUiam von,
hte minister of iustice and the interior,
and president of the council of ministerB of
the grand-duke of Hesse-Dannstadt, was
bom July S3, 1775, in Giessen. In 1796,
he was appointed professor of law in the.
university of Giessen. In 1816, he was
called to Darmstadt, to preside over a
commission for drawing up a new code.
He rose gradually to the post of minister,
in which he managed all branches of
the government,- except the' military.
GrolmatL during his long career as pro-
fessor or law, has written manv works,
some of distinguished merit, as his Prin-
ciples of the Science of Criminal Law
(4th edit., 1896), m which he lays down
the theory of preventiony as the German
bwyera <^ it, and several others. He has
also edited or written for several law pe-
riodicals of high reputation.

Gaomirosif ; a province of the kingdom
of the Netherlands, between 52^ 5ff and
sagas' N. ho., ande^liy and 7° 13f E.
Ion., forming the north-eastern extremity
of the kingdom, on the eoast of the Ger-
man ocean, containing 780 square miles;
is protected against the encroachments of
the sea by dikes. It is very level, and is in-
tenected by innumerable canals, partlv for
the purpose of safety, and partly to drain
the tana, which is in some parts fertile, in
others sandy, and in others marshy. In
the south-east are the vast morasses of
Bourtange. There are manv lakes, of
which tlie Zuidlaader, the Schild and the
Foxhobter are the principaL The climate
is damp. The 142,575 inhabitants are most-
ly Calvinists, and raise great numbera of
cattle. Groningen takes the sixteenth
place in the kin^om, and sends four dep-
uties to the states-eeneral. The provin-
cial states consist of 36 memberB. In 1810,
it was made a department of the French
empire, under the name of the JFutem
Ems, The capital of this province is Gro-
ningen. (See the/oUminng article,)

Gkoninoen ; a city in the Netheriands,
capital of the province of Groninffen, on
the rivera Hunse and Fivel, 81 mifes west
of Bremen, 100 miles north-east of Am-
sterdam ; lat 53« IS' 13^' N.; Ion. ff> 34'
W[ E.; 27,800 inhabitants; churches, 12.
It is large, rich, strong, well peopled, and
adorned witli many excellent buildings,
public and private; its figure is neariy
round, encompassed with good ramparts,
guarded by brgc ditches fifled with water,

besides many bastions and other fortifica-
tions, which would render an attack upon
it very difficult. Its port is very commo-
dious ; ships enter with freat ease by
means of a canal, whose sides are lined
witli large stones for about nine miles from
the sea. The university of Groningen,
founded in 1614, and endowed with the
revenues of several monasteries, has Ions
been respectable. It consists of five facul-
ties, and has a sood library. Here are al-
so academies- for drawing, navigation and
agriculture, an institution for the deaf and
dumb, and societies of lawyera and physi-
cians. In 1826, an epidemic, caused by
the great drought, did great injury. Some
authore think this city to be on the spot of
the ancient fortress which Tacitus men-
tions under the name of CorbuUmis numu-
menhtm, but there is no historical proof of it
GaoNOvius (properly GroYiov) ; the name
of several celebrated critics and philolo-
gists. 1. Mn Ftedaric^ one of the most
Kamed students of antiquities, was bom
at Hflanburg in 161 1. He studied at Leip-
sic and Jena, and went through a course
of law at Altdor^ spent some time in Hol-
land and England, was appointed profes-
sor of history and eloquence at Deventer,
and, after the death of Daniel lieinnus,
succeeded him, as professor of belles-let-
tres at Leyden (1658), where he died 1671.
With exteusive knowledge he combined
indefiitiflnble industry and amiable man-
nera. His editions of Livy, Statius, Jus-
tin, Tacitus, Gellius, Phradrus, Seneca,
Sallust, Pliny, Pkuitus, &c, and his Obser-
vations, are valuable for their notes and im-
proved readings. Ifis Ommeniarius de
Sesterciis displays a thorough acquaintance
with the Roman language and antiquities ;
and his edition of Hu^o Grotius's woric,
De Jure Belli el Pacisj is jusdy valued, on
account of the notes. 2. His son Jcanes,
bom at Deventer, in 1645, studied there
and at Leyden. He spent some months at
Oxford and Cambridge, and returned to
Leyden, where he published, in 1676, an
edition of Polvbius, which met with such
applause, that he received an offer of a pro-
fessorship at Deventer. He refused it,
however, firom a desire to travel through
France, Spam and Italy. The grand -duke
of Tuscany conferred on him a professor-
ship at Pisa, which he relinquished in
1679, and was appointed professor of
belles-lettres at Leyden and geognqpher to
the imivereitv. He died at Leyden in
1716. This teamed and industrious critic
edited Tacitus, Polylnus, HerodoUis, Pom-
ponius Mela, Cicero, Ammianus Maroelli-
nus, &c, and compiled the valuaUe TVte-'

GRONOVIU&-GROSBEAK.

jounw AnHqmiatum Chwcamm (Leyden,
1G07, 13 Yols, fyl) He also promoted the
publicatioii of the coUections of Gnevius.
(See QrcBvkis,) These two works should
be united, and, to fbrm a complete library
of antiquities, the •Votn» Theiow. AnL
Rom, by SaUengre (Hague, 171^ 3 Tola.
foL), tlie Vhriutque Tms. nm>a SuppU-^
fltente, by Poleni (Veuice, 1737, 5 vds.
foL\ the Inacr^ftumes AntiqwB toHus Orins
Rom^ by Gruter (Amsterdam, 1707, 4 vols.
foL), and the iMneon AnL i2om., by Pitis-
cus (Leuwarden, 1713, 2 vols. fA,\ should
be added. He had many weak points in
his character, and his vanity led him to as-
sail and calumniate men of the greatest
merit, such as Heniy Stephens, Spcmheim,
Voflsius, Salmaaius, Bochart and Grsevius.
3L His son Ahrahamj bom at Leyden, 1694,
showed himself a cood philoloffist, by his
editions of Justin, Pomponius Mela^ Taci-
tus and iEiiaiL He died there in 1775,
iibnuian to the university.

Gaos (French) ; thick, strong ; a word
used in many compositions for silks, as
rros de Nioiu^groadt Toun^ grosde Ber^
Ml, &C., all strong fabrics.

Gaos, Anthony John, bom in Paiis^
1771, a pupil of David, is the most cele-
brated painter of battle-scenes of the age.
Gnw fint made himself known by his
skill in portrait painting ; but he soon de-
voted hunself to the path of rich and n6-
ble composition, in which he seems to
have taken Paul Veronese for his model.
Ifis first celebrated work was the picture
of the Sick of the Plwie at Jaffii, finish-
ed in 1804. An officer is represented
holding a handkerchief before his face, to
avoid inhaling the infection, while the
heio of the piece fearlessly approaches
and touches one of the sick. All the fig-
ures in this woik are portraits. All that
is terrible in such a subject is represented
in the clearest light, but sofienea by skill
of execution and happy conception. This
painting excited general admiration. It
was purchased by the covemment, and
Gros was commiasionea to execute the
battle of Aboukir. This splendid paint-
ing he completed in about 14 months.
H& Battle of Eyiau is painted with ex-
quiste skill There is much diat is over-
chaiged in it, however; and a delicate
taste must be particulariy ofiended with
the profiiaion of mutilated soldieiB. In
1814, Gros executed a picture, represent-
ing the visit of Francis I and Charies V
to the abbey of St D^nis, which excited
great admiration. It was designed for the
sacristy of the church. The departure
of the king, <m the nif^t of March 30,

1815, fimned the sul^ect of another woifc,
which he executed in 1817. The pre-
vaiiinf confiai^n and want of nobility in
the fmncipal character are looked upon as
unfortunate defects. A group of national
guards, however, is^veiy expresnve. The
Difax on the back ground and the figure
of an old servant are exquisite. In 1824,
he completed his painting for the dome
of the church of St Genevieve, covering
a space of 3350 feet, and therefore requir-
ing the figures to be colossal. It repre-
sents Genevieve protecting the Ftench
throne. Ciovis, uhariemagne, St Louis,
and (instead of Napoleon, who fiunished
the plan] Louis X VlII, witii the duchess of
Angouleme, form the principal groups.
When Charles X saw the picture, he ssp
luted the artist as baron, ana the nninii»y
mnted him 50,000 finncs, in addition to
ttie price of the picture (100,000 fiancs)r
All the woiks of this artist are marked by
bold design and powerful coloring. Groe
is a menuier of the academy, and of die
lesion of honor, and professor in the
school of painting and sculpture.

Grosbeak (l^ia, L.) These birds
are in general shy and solitary, chiefly
living in woods, at a distance fiom the
hi^itations of man* Their vocal powers
are not gpat, and hence they are little
sought imer as song birds. Their most
oonqncuous characteristics are the thick-
ness and strength of tlieir bills, which en-
able them to break the stones of various
kinds of fruits. There are many epecies
of them, the best known of which is the
L. coceothraustet. This species is an in-
habitant of the temperate parts of Europe.
Bufibn says it is a shy and solitary bird,
with no son^. The female builds bet '
nest in trees ; it is compoeed of small, dry
roots and gross, and fined with warmer
materials. The eggs are roundish, of a
bluish green, spotted with brown. The
green, grosbeak (Zi. cMorw) is common in
eveiy part of Great Britam, and may be
seen in every hedge, especially in winter.
It does not migrate. The female builds
in hedges or low bushes; she lays five or
six eggs, of a pale ^[reenish color, marked
at the larger end with spots of a reddish I
brown. The pine grosbeak (Xr. muchleth '
tor) Inhabits the cold regions of both con-
tinents, whence it occasionaUy visits tem-
perate dunates in the winter. ThefemaJe
makes her nest on trees, at a small dkh
tance from the ground, and lays four while
egsB. There are several species peculiar
to North America, as the cardinal bird {L,
cardinalm), wliich is found ftom Nuw
England to South America, and is mast

GROBBEAK--GROTEBaUlS.

(imtof tfaeAUe^UDiin. Thia
beautiful biid, nduch is often kept in
cages, on aocoont of its bnsfat plumage^
is crested, of a red color, brigpter beDoith,
with the throat black, and oil! red; the
female is of a drab red cokxr. The other
fpeeies are, evening grosbeak (L. tespaU-
nal rose-breasted srosbeak (L, hukmna-
noL blue grosbeak^I*. candea).

OaoscHEif; a sdyer coin, so called
from the Latin gnssus (thu^k); thick
'coins, in opposition to thm lead coins,
"nie oldest groschen known were struck
In Treves, in 1104. The first Bohemian
groschen were coined in 1296, at Kutten-
buig. In ISSKi, the groschen was divided
into 13 pfennigs In 1504, the small
mschen, now m use, were first struck at
tbo city Gosslar. The Marien-ffroschen
are valued at eight pfemiige, and 30 mod-
em groschen cm* Piussia are equal to a
thaler. Orotdi is also the name of a
Russian copper coin, worth two copecks.

Gross (aoI.), in opposition to nef, is ap-
plied to merchandise, including that m
which it is packed. It refers particu-
larivtoweifffaL Thus we say, <* The bag of
coffee weicms nine hundred weight groffs,"
that is, including the weight of the Dag.

Qross-Beeren, Battle of, August
33, 18ia August 17, 1813, the annistice
havinff expiree^ the war between the allies
and Mi^wfeon commenced anew, and the
emperor of France deared to huri his
boltt, at the same time, into the camps at
Breslau, Pracue and Beiiin. They re-
coiled upon mmself on the Katzbach, at
Culm and Grross-Beeren. Berlin was
protected by the militia and the northern
army, commanded by Bemadotte, then
crown-piince of Sweden, and consisting of
the third and fourth Prusrian divisions, the
Russian corps under Woronzow, Winzin-
gerode and Czemitschefjand about 32,000
Swedes. The French army, reinforced by
the forces of Wiirtembers, Bavaria, Darm-
stadt and Saxony, was formed into feur
divisions, led by Oudinot (the general-
in-chief), Victor, Regnier and Bertrand,
and was, together with the cavalry, under
Anighi, fifom 80,000 to 90,000 strong.
Its ^stination was the capture of Beriin,
and it vnis supported by general Giraid,
with the garrison of Magdebui^; but
the crown-prince performed, in detail,
the same operations against this body as
the allies against the main body of the
enemv. His army formed a curve firom
fittchholtz, the extremi^ of the left wing,
through Mittenwalde, KJein-BeereD, Hein-
«mdorf, Blankenfeld, ROhbdorf, to Belitz
and TreaenbriesBD, the extreme rif^t

win^i^ fix)m which the Russian line inclin-
ed inwards towards Jfiterbock ; while the
PnisBians, in the centre, were advanced to
Trebbin. The Prussian generals Hirsch-
fekl and Puttlitz observed Magdebuiig be-
yond Brandenburg. On both wings, the
light troops were ouspersed as ftr as Wit-
tenberg, Guben and Baruth. On the 23d,
the enemy entered the curve— l^rnier in
the centre, Bertrand on the right, and
Oudinot on the left wing. They attacked
the Prussians, at Trebbin, who gave way.
On the 33d, Bertrand fell upon genml
Tauenzien at Blankenfeld, mit vnis re-
pulsed. Reffnier forced his way to GrosB-
beeren, the Key-stone of 'die arch, about
10 miles fifom Berlin. Here he was un-
expectedly attacked by the brave Bfilow.
At the same time, Borstell surrounded the
ri^t wing of the enemy. The Prussians
fought, vnth great courage, in sight of
their capitaL A mount^ Saxon bat-
tery havmg been outflanked and taken,
they advanced to a chafgc. The dis-
charge of fire-arms being rendered im-
possmle bv the rain, the soldiers fought
^with the butt-ends of their muskets and
with bayonets. Gross-Beeren was taken
by storm; the Saxon and the second
French division were driven firom the
field, and the cavalry of the duke of
Padua routed. Oudinot now brought up
the three divisions of reserve, which were
attacked by the Russians and Swedes aa
they deployed fix)m the wood. Cardell,
colonel of the Swedish forces, suf^rted
by an attack of cavalry, took the enemy's
artillery. Oudinot now abandoned the
struggle, and retreated to Witteobeiig and
Torgau, on the Elbe. He lost 90 cannons
and more than 3000 prisoners. The
Prussians gained possession of Jiiterbock,
and, on the 38th, of Luckau. A pyramid
of cast iron has been erected on the spot
by Frederic William III.

Grotbfeud, George Frederic; bom
1775 ; director of the ronnasium in Hano-
ver; a distmgujshed German philologist
He published a revised edition of Wenck's
Latm €rranunar (fourth edition, 1834,
Frankfort), and an abridgment of it at the
same place. It is one of the best German-
Latin grammars. He has also written
msny teamed philological treatises. His
nephew AuguduSj co-rector of the royal
podagogium at Ilfeld, is the author of a
Complete Latin Grammar (two volumes,
Hanover, 1890).

GROTBsqxTEB, iu painting, are . often
confounded with arabesques. All oma-
ments compounded in a lantastical man-
ner, of men, beasts, ftovrers^ fdanta, &0.,

GROTESOUES-OROTIUS.

are caDed Bomelimes ara6e9gifef , and
sometinies gnUsques ; but there is a di»-
tinctioii' between them. Arabeaques are
ftower-piecedy consisting of all lands of
leaves and flowers, real or imaginafy.
Tbey are so called from the Arabians,
who fiist used them, because thev were
not pemiitted to copy beasts and men.
As mey were also used by the Moors,
they are sometimes called moresquea. The
Romans ornamented their saloons with
paintings, in which flowers, genii, men
And beasbSf buildings, &c^ are mingled to-
jeether according to the &ncy of the artist
llieBe ornaments are properlv caUed gro-
kgqueSf because they were round in the
rained buildings of the ancient Romans,
aatl in subterranean chambers, which the
Itafians caifl gnMoet, The origin of these
ftntastic compomtions is trac^, by B6tti-
ger, to the carpets of Persia and India,
adorned with all the wonders of Oriental
fiiUe. In the baths of Titus and Livia, at
Rome, in Adrian's villa at Tivoli, in the
bouses in Herculaneum and Pompeii, and
many other places, such ^tesques have
been found ; sometimes, mdeed, showing
an excess of ornament, but generally val-
uable for their arrangement and execu-
tion. Raphael was well aware of their
beauty, and caused his pupils, particularly
Giov. Nanni da Udlne, to use them as
patlems in painting the porticoes of the
Vatican. He likewise used them, as the
ancients did, for borders. The taste for
grotesques has, in part, degenerated into
the monstrous and unnatural; grotesque
has therefore become a term of art to ex-
presB a distorted figure, a strange monster,
the offipring of an unrestrained imagina-
tion.

Grotius, or Dc Groot, Hugo, a schol-
ar and statesman of the most diversified
talents, was bom at Delfl, April 10th, 158a
He was descended from a noble family, and
received on excellent education. In his
1^ year, he sustained, witii general ap-
plause, theses on philosophy, mathematics
and law. The next year, he accompanied
Bameveldt (q.v.), tlie^Dutch ambassador, to
Fiance, where ho gained the approbation of
Henry IV, by his genius and demeanor,
and was e veiy where admired as a prodigy.
Afler his return, he conducted his mist
lawsuit in his 17th year ; and, in his 24th,
WBs appointed advocate-general. In 1613,
he became syndic, or pensioner, of Rotter-
dam. The disputes of the Remonstrants
and their opponents then disturbed tlie
tumquilliQr or Holhmd. (See Arrmmaris.)
Baameveldt was the defender of the for-
paity. Grotius, who had declared

TOL- VI. 7

himself on the side of Bameveldt, sup-
ported him by his pen and influence.
This involved him in the trial which ter-
minated m die beheading of Bameveldt,
in 1619, and the condemnation of Gro-
tius to imprisonment for life in the fortress
of Louvestein. He succeeded in esciq^
'me from this fortress by concealing him-
self in a chest, in which his wife had sent
him books. After wanderinff about for
some time in the Catholic Nemerfonds, he
escaped to France. Louis XIII gave hun
a penfflon of 3000 livnes. The Dutch
ambassadors endeavored in vain to preju-
dice the king against him. Richeheu was
unfavorably disposed towards him, and, in
1631, even his pension was withdrawn.
Grotius then returned to hb native country,
relying on the flivor of Frederic Henry,
prince of Orange, who had written him a
sympathizing letter. But, by the influ-
ence of his enemies, he was condemned
to perpetual banishment Grotius next
proceeded to Hamburg. During his resi-
dence in tiiat city, the Kings of I)eninaTk,
of Poland and of Spain tnade attempts to
persuade him to settle in their states ; but
the protection which the chancellor Ox-
enmem promised liim, and the inclination
of queen Christina for learning, induced
him to accept the offers of this princess.
In 1634, he went to Stockholm, where he
was appointed counsellor of state and am^
baasaaor to the French court. This
choice displeased cardinal Richelieu, who
was irritated to see a man return, who
had been denied protection and a resi-
dence in France ; out Oxenstiero would
not allow any other minister to be nomi-
nated, and Grotius appeared at Paris in
1635. He dischargea his duties, as am-
bassador, for 10 years, and gained univer*
sal respect On his return to Sweden by
the way of Holland, he met. in Amster-
dam, with the most honorable reception.
Most of his enemies were dead, and his
countrymen repented of bavins banished
the man who was the honor of his native
land. He was received with equal favor
by the queen in Sweden. He afterwards
requested his dismission, and, having
finally obtained it, was on his way to Hol-
land, when a storm drove him to Pome-
rania. He fell sick at Rostock, where he
died, August 28, 1645. With die talents
of die most able statesman, Hugo Grotius
united deep and extensive learning. He
was a protbimd theologian, excellent in
exegesis, his Commentary on the New
Testament being still esteemed ; a distin-
guished belles-Tetties scholar, an acute
philosopher and jurist, and a historian in-

GROnUS-^l^ROUClIY.

tiiiiale with the soiuoeB of history. His
wiitiDgs have had a decisive influence on
the formation of a sound toste, and on
the difllifflon of an enlightened and liberal
manner of thSnlring in afiairs of science.
As a philologian, he seizes the genius of
his author with sagaci^, illustrates brief-
ly and peitinendy, and amends the text
with fiicili^ and success. His metrical
translations fiom the Greek are executed
with the spirit of a poet Among the
modem Laidn poets, he holds one of the
iu«t places, and he also tried liis powers in
Dutcn verse. But the philosopny of ju-
riBpnidence has been ee^ciaJly promoted
by his great work on natural ana national
law, DtJurt Belli H Pacts, which laid the
foundation of a new science; besides
which he wrote AnnaUs Bdgiect usque ad
Ann, 16(^ ; ParalUlon Rerua^mblic. ; De
FeriiaU Rdigiome ChrisLj and Poemata
(Leyden, 1617, 12mo.).

GaoTTA DEL Cane (dog's cave); the
most remarkable of the many grottoes
around Naples, mentioned even by Pliny
(Ubk 2, c 90), hollowed out of a sandy
soil, to the depth of ten feet, and the
breftdth of four. A lifht vapor, resem-
bling that of coal, is always seen rising
about six inches in height The walls
do not exhibit any incrustation or do-
pont of saline matter No smell is emit-
ted, except that which is generally con-
nected witii a subteiranean passage. A
doc is most commonly chosen to exhib-
it oie effects of this vapor. The animal,
held in it, at first struggles considerably,
but loses all motion in about two min-
utes, and would immediately die, if it
was not withdrawn into the open air.
The effect is the same on all animals, and
is owing to the presence of carbonic acid
gas (see Carbon), which produces death
merely by suffocation. A man, however,
may enter the cave with impunity, as he
may wade into the water, because the
specific gravity of the gas prevents its
nsing above five or six inches from the
floor. (See Aim;?.]

GaoTTO ; a small artificial edifice made
in a wden, in imitation of a natural grot-
to. The outsides of these grottoes are
usually adorned with rustic arcliltecture,
and their inside with shell-work, cor-
al, &c.

GaoucHT, Emanuel, count of, was bom
at Paris, in 1766, entered the military
service at the age of 14, and, in 1785,
was appointed an ofiicer in the lung's
body-guard. On the breaking out of the
revolution, he showed his attachment to
liberal principles, left the guards in conse-

quence, and served in the campaimof
1792, as commander of a regiment of dra-
goons. In the succeeding winter, he was
placed at the head of the cavaliV of the
army of the Alps, and contributed essen-
tially to the conquest of Savoy. He was
then sent mto Vend^, where he distin-
guished himself on several occasions, but
was obliged to leave the army in conse-
quence of the decree of the convention
excluding all nobles from any military
command. In 1794, he was again sent to
Vendte, with the rank of genend of divis-
ion, disappointed the attempts of the em-
igrants at Quiberon, and cooperated vig-
orously with the measures of general
Hoche. In 1797, he was appointed sec-
ond in command of the army destined for
the invasion of Ireland. A stonn dispers-
ed the fleet, and he arrived in the bay of
Bantiy, with a small part of the land forces
and a few ships. He determined, nev-
ertheless, to land his forces ; but the rear-
admiral Bouvet refused to comply, and
Grouchy was obliged to return to France
witiiout efifecting any thing.' In 1796, be
was ordered to join the army of Italy, and
received the command of the citadel ofTu-
rin, and afterwards of all Piedmont, where
he distinguished himself by his prudence,
moderation and fiiTnneas. In the fbllow-
inff year, his services contributed easen-
tiiuly to Moreau's victories in Germany,
and the battie of Hohenlinden was gained
chiefly by his energy and courage. Dur-
ing the trial of general Moreau, he mani-
fested his sentiments in his favor in such
a manner as to incur the displeasure of
Napoleon, who continued, indeed, to em-
ploy him in tiie most dangerous and im-
portant enterprises, but without rewarding
nis services. In tiie campaigns against
Prussia, in 1806 and 1807, he commanded
a cavalry corps, compelled the corps of
prince Hohenlolic to capitulate at Prenzlau,
and that of Bliichcr near L(kbeck,and dis-
tinjniished himself at Friedland. From
ISfiB to the time of the Austrian war, he was
governor of Madrid, was then attached to
me arnY of Italy, penetrated to Hunsary,
and distinguished himself at the battte of
Wa^ram. In reward for his important
services, he was created commander of
the iron crown, colonel-general iu the
cliasseurs, and grand-officer of the empire.
During the campaign in Russia (1812),
general Grouchy commanded one of the
three cavalry coq» of the grand anny,
took an important part in all me great op-
erations, covered the retreat to Smolensk,
and received the command of the sacred
squadron, composed of generals and ofR-

GROtCilY-GROUF.

eoB, wUch Nf^ioleob hid oigamzad for
the security of his penon, in case of
esreniity. Ofiended by the refusal of
the emperor to confide to him the com-
mand of a division of inftntiy, Gronc^
retired from the senrice. xBut on the loss
of the battle of Leipeic, and the disastrous
relieat of the French from Germany, he
oflfered to resume his post Napoleon,
while he permitted him to choose between
the annyin Piedmont and the cavahy,
gave him to understand that he consider-
ed that he would be most useful at the
head of the cavafay, the command of
wfai^ Ghtmchy, therefore, determined to
accept. His brUliant services in the cam-
paign of 1814 were rewarded with the
baion of marshaL After the restoration,
he received no appointment, and he there-
fore joined Napoleon on his return from
Elba, in 1815, he received the command
of the reserve cavalry of the grand army
(80 sqoadrops]. On the 17th of June, he
was detached m pursuit of the Prussians,
and on the 18th, the day of the battle of
Waterioo^ was before Wavre. Napoleon
aecoBes him of being the author of the
defeat at Waterloo^ by permitting two dg-
vinoBB of the PrussiBn army, imder Blfi-
eher, to join the English mrces. After
the flSiAcation of die emperor, marshal
Grouchy proclaimed Napoleon IL He
was one of the 19 general officers, whose
arrest was ordered by the ordomumce of
July dl, 1815^ in consequence of winch
be retired to Uie U. States, where he re-
mamed until he received permission to
return to Fraoee. In his Observatioas
en the Gtoipaign of 1815» published at
Pfailade^rfiia, Grouchy has defended him^
self from the charges of the emperOr.
His sister,

Qrovthf, SoMt, wife of the femous
Condorcet, diea 1^2. She is the author
of several valuable works. Her transla-
tion of Snntb's ThhrU du SmHmenis
moranor is admired. Mad. Condorcet
showed a touching solicitude for ber
brother, the marshm, when he was tried,
in 1817, and def^ded by his son.

GmouiiBSKi. (aenedo vui^arig) ; a weed,
mwmg ui waste ^ces, mtroduced into
me U. Stales from Europe, and flowering
dsmiglioiit the whole season. It belongs
to tfie natural order eainpoffvto; the stem
is tenknis, about a foot nigh ; the leaves
aaaplexieiiul and sinuato-pinnatifid ; the
flowen smaO, yeHkiw, destitute of any ray,
and disposed in a loose corymlk The
plant is emollienty has a herbaceous and
a&ghtly acid taste, but is rejected by al-
most evety qnadrnped, except the hogand

goat: soMil faMs, how^vw, ass vary Ibnd
of the seeds. Such was the nuldneas of
the weather in the beginningof the wimof
of 1834-^ that this ptant flowered on the
90th of December, in the streets of Bos-
ton.

Gbouzid Tacxlk ; a general name given
to all sorts of ropes and furniture vdueh
belonff to the anchors^ or which are em-
ployed in securinga ship in a road or har-
W ; as cables, anchon^ bow-lines, 6lc

Group (Italian grofpo or grvppo) ; a
term enmloyed, in pamting and sculpture,
to signify an aasemUage of severat ob-
jects, such as fi^vres of men, beasts, firuils
or the Mke, which have some rekdon to
each other, arranged in such a manner
as to present to the eye one connected
whole. To grotip objects^ is to arrange
them according to then- magnitude, direc-
tion, apparent motion, &c., so as to fartn
one whole. Rules for the dispondon and
employment of groups are derived fimn
philosophical prmciples of art lliese
rules require a imity of Interest, which
is by no means inconsistent vrith varie^
of ex|MresBiott. Thus, in bistoikal paim"
in^ all the figures have reference to the
pimcipal one, to winch Ae attention is
chiefly directed. The groups must also
be easily embraced by the eye, and aciee-
able. This depends upon a skiiftu ar-
rangement of the figiues and distribu-
tion of the light. The cone, the pyramid,
and abunch of gmpes, have been teken as
modds of a group. Titian regarded the
bunch of grapes as amodel, be^wise, in hn
outlines and surfaces, it ezhibitB a unity
connected vrith the iiiost agreeable variehr,
and all the necessary dinerences of tif^t
and shade and reflections. In the pynmid
we have the model of the relation between
a small height and broad surftce. MengiS
advises to bring the larger masses into the
centre, and the smaUertothe cnvmnfer-
ence, which gives lightness and grace to
the group ; not to arrange the figures in
succession, nor to bring out various promi-
nent ports of the figure, for instance, tieads,
BO as to form togeUier straight, liorizontaL
perpendicular or oblique Bnes ; to avoid
geometrical figures, too great regulatily
and repetition, and to exhibit onhr the
most beautifid portions. He also ttiinfcs
it advantageous to unite the groups of
figures in uneven nombers^ aind to ob-
serve the same rules in collecting the
groups into picturea Of the even num-
ben, he says, the most toleraUe are those
which are made up of two uneven num-
bers; for example»6, 10, 14; but those
fonned v^ two even munbers^ such as

GROUP— GRUNSR.

4, 8, 13, can never be iiitroduoed iM^th
0«0e. ThereflMxi is, that such a dispoei-
turn Mtfves to avoid uniformitjr. If mo-
notony of figures in a group is intolerable,
a monotony of groups in a pictiue is as
little to be endured ; and one pyramidal
group at the side of anodier gives to the
whole a stiff and constrained appearance.
Moreover, objects apparently separate may
often serve to unite two groups, otherwise
distinct, which the ardst effects by a skil-
ftd intermingting of Ijffht and shade.

QaousE {fetraoy This is a lai^ genus
of birds, whose distinguishinff mark is a
naked band, often of a red color, in place
of an eyebrow. They are wild, shy, and
almost untamable. They lire in fami-
lies, dwelling in forests, barren countries^
ftr froin man and coliivatton. They feed
exclusively on berries, buds and leaves.
They are Dolygamous, the male abandon-
ing the female, and leavingto her the
whole care of the progeny. The number
of eggs varies from eight to fourteen. The
largest q^ecies is the wood grouse (T. icro-
gaJBua). This is superior in size to the
turiLey, and is pecuhar to ibe old oond-
nent It lives in pine forests, feeding
on Ae cones of the ti^ which, at some
seasons, cive an unpleasant flavor to its
flesh. The hkuk grmm (71 Utnx\ also
peeuiiar to the old continent, is about the
size of a common fowl, though it m much
heavier. It chiefly Iivcni. in high uid
wooded situations, feeding on various
kinds of benie& It does not pair, but, on
the return c^ spring, the males assemble
in ereal numbera, when a contest for su-
periority ensues^ and oontinues with great
oittemess till the vanquished are put to
flights Red grouse (T. &:oHeu$). This
tun! is also ciuled trnHfrfowl, and is found
in great plenty m the ui^Mands of Scot-
land. It pairs in the spnng ; the female
lays eaghi or ten eggs. The young foUov
the' hen the whole summer. As soon as
they hafve attained theur full size, they
unite in flocks of for^ or fifVy, and are
extremely shy and wild. fFhUe grouse
{T.aUms). This bird is ash-colored in
summer, but its hue chan^ to a pure
white in winter. It is found in most north-
ern regions. Buflfon, speaking of this
bud, says that it avoids the solar heat, and
prefers the biting frosts on the tops of
mountains ; fer, as the snow melts on the
sides of the mountains, it constandy as-
cends. The flesh is dark colored. There
are also several species peculiar to North
America, the most remaikable of which is
the pkmaUd grouse^ or heath hen (T. eti-
pdo.) This curious bird inhd^its open,

deseit plams in ^Mulicular distridB of tlii»
Union, avoiding unmense intermediate re^

S*on& The nuJe is furnished yntii vring-
ce appendages to his neck, covering tiro
loose, orange, skinny bags, capable m be-
ing inflated. Its favmite feed is the par^
tridge berry, though it is also fond of
whortleberries and cranbeffriea. It com-
monly unites in covies, until the pairing
season. Ruffed grouse^ or partridffB of
the Eastern States, and pheasant of Penn-
sylvania (T. umbdlus\ well knovm in al-
most eveiY quarter or the U. States* Ite
favorite phces of resort are hi^ nooun-
tains, covered with the balsam pme, hem-
lock, &C.; ii IS seldom feund in open
plains. The manners of this bird are sol-
itary, being usually found in pairs or sin-
gly. It generally moves along with great
statelinesBi with the tail spread out &e a
fen. The male makes a peculiar noise,
termed (fritmmtnjf. This is done by rap-
idly striking with his stiffened wings;
it is most common in the fnoming and
evening. It pairs in April, and lays in
May. l^e em are from nine to fifleen
in number. It is in best order for the ta-
ble in September and October. The oth-
er American tijpecies are, the duaiy grouse
(T. ohsewus)t mhahiting near the Rocky
mountains; Canadian grouse (3*. Cana-
densis), peculiar to the northern and north-
western parts of the U. States, more com-
mon in Canada: long4ailed grouse (T.
phasianelku) inhabits the vrestem wUds of
the U. States beyond the MisBissippL

GafiNBERo ; a city in the Prunian gov-
ernment of LJeffnitz, Silesia, with 1(^000
inhalntants. U manufactures a great
quandty of broadcloth, and is sunounded
by vine^ranls, which produce large quan-
tities of*^ wine. The wine is mudi used
to mix with inferior French wines, to be
sold m the interior. It is so astringent,
that it .is commonly said, in Germany,
^ You can m^ nd the holes of a stocking
by putting some Griinberg wine into iL"

Gruner, Christian Godfrey; a oele-
hrated German phyacian, bom Nov. 8,
1744, at Sagan, in Silesia. He first stud-
ied dieology, at the deem of his fiitfaer,
after whose death he followed his own
inclination fer the medical science, in
which he became one of the most prolific
and practical writeis. He wrote about 50
large works, and manv essays, which
show a thorough acquamtance widi an-
cient medical merature, as well as sound
practical judgment He was a long time
professor hi the university at Jena, where
be died Dec. 4, 1815. He was member
of a vast number of academies and learned

GKUNESr-CHJADAIXWFK

in Gwrnaaj and odrar coon-

Gkdnkb, Ghflriee Justus von, born Feb.
98^ 1777, studied in Hafle and G6ttingen.
In 1808, he reeeired an office under the
FkuoBian gevenunent When the French
entaced Posen, Ghruner was making a coi-
lecikA ftr the widow of Pafan, the book-
seller^ who was shot by the French far
having pnbGahed -a jpamphlet against thenL
Gffuner was thcrerore denounced to^mar*
flhdJDavoust as a suspicious person; upon
which he went himself to Davoust with
the fist of subseribeiB, and the manhal
s u hsci i b e d > hm sum. AfterwardB^ feel-
ing vnaofe, he &d to Tilsit He was then
appokited the preadent of tile police in Ber-
mi, at that time a very dangerous and deli-
cate situation. In 1811, he was indirectly
obliced, by the Ffencfa, to give up his office.
hi 1B12, he went to Bohemia f whether sent
by govemnent or not is not known)^ and,
suf^oited by Russia and England, estab-
lidbed connezions throughout Germany
for Ae ofothrow of Napoleon^ domina'
tion. The plan was to begin with the
bomkig of the French magazines^ when
their troops were &r advan^ in Russia;
but the vigihmce of the French rendered
this plan aboitivet and the Prussian gov-
ernment was dbhged to demand his arrest
of the Austrian government He remain-
ed in confinement a year, when the Rus-
flisn govemment delivered him from his
nison. Dining the war agahist the
rren«^ he was appointed governor of the
Rheniah movinces, wiiere he was very
active. The emperor of Russia conferred
on him the wd^r of St Anne of the firat
dasBL AAer Napoleon^ second ftU, he
was made Prusnan director of the police
for Paris and the environSi in whtcn ca-
pacity he ooonteracted, with great decis-
MQ and dexterity^ the cunning of Fouch^,
who employed eveiv means to retain the
wofks of art wliich had been collected in
Paris. After the peace, the kin^ of Prus-
sia made Irim a noble, and appomted him
nnoister to the Swiss republics. He died
Feb. 8, 1820. CSruner has written several
valoabie wovks on aubjects connected
with politics and the police.

Gar; a measure containing (me tenth
of a line.

GavraifFS, Andrew (propei^, Ore^
a dramatic poet was bom 1616, at Glogau.
He studied at Fraustadt and Dantzic, and
acquired an extensive knowledge of law ;
aAer which he became taux in a ftnuly.
He passed ten yean in travelling throu^
HoUand, France and Italy, during which
he fbnned friendships with many of the

most eminent men of the age. On his
return, he became syndic to the senata of
Gtogau. He died suddenly (1664), in an
assembly of the estates. Gryphtus did
much for Gennan literature. At a time
when there w«re no German dramas but
the canoival plays, he wrote tragedies and
comedies, which displayed his acquaint-
ance with the ancient and modem fitersr
ture,and contained many poetical passsges,
though they showed no acquaintance with
theatrical efiect The Dutch poet Vondai
seems to have been his model. Manv of
his other poems breathe a high lyric
spirit, mixed widi a tone of mebnchofy,
occasioned by his misfortunes.

GuADALAXAaA ; formerly an intendancy
of Mexico, bounded N. by Sonora and
Dunngo, E. by Zacateeas and Guanaxua-
to, S. by Valladolid, and W. by the Pacific
ocean ; it is 350 miles long and 900 broad ;

Suare leagues, 9612 ; pof^ulation in 180G^
0,000. It contains 2 cities, 6 towns, and
323 villages. The principal mines are
those of Bolanos, Arientos de Obuna,
HostiotipaquiUo, Copahi and GuichichUa.
It is crossed firom E. to W. by the.Rio de
Santiago. All the eastern part is table
land, and has a pleasant climate. Tlie
maritime regions afe covered with forests^
and abound in excellent timber for ship-
building ; but the air is very hot and nn-
healthyi This countiy now forms the state
of Yalisco, in the Mexican confederacy.

GuADALAXAaA ; a city in Mexico, capi-
tal of the countiy of the same naxne, on
the Santiago, 240 miles N. W. of Mexico ;
Ion. 103^ ^W.; lat2P9'N.; popuhtion,
19,500 — Spaniards, mulattoes and mesti-
zoes. ItisalH8hop'Bsee,andi8situatedin
a delightful and fertile plain, is regular and
handKime, containing eight squarea» a
magnificent cathedral, two colleges, many
convents, and a manufectoiy of cigan.
The bouses are moedy of only one stoiy,
the streets unpeved, and the carnages are
drawn by unuiod mules.

GuADAi«oirpE ; an island of the West
Indies, and one of the largest and most
valuable of the Caribbee islands. It is
situated in Ion. 62^ W., and in lat 16^ 20^
N., and is botween 60 and 70 miles in
length, and about 25 miles in its greatest
breadth. It is divided imo two parts by a
channel, in breadth fix>m 30 to 80 yards,
TliiB channel runs north and south, and
communicates with the sea on both aides
by a lafve bay at each end. The east part
of the island is called Grande TVrre, aiHl is
about 57 miles from Antigua point This

Cis about 120 miles in chcumference.
west part, which is properiy Quads-

GUABALOUPE-OUANAXUATO.

loupe, is divided by a lidge of mountains.
This is 96 miles from north to south, and
23 where broadest, and about 120 in cur-
. cuit. In many parts the soil is rich. Its
produce m the same with that of the other
West India islands, namely, sugar, coffee,
lum, ginger, cocoa, log^wood, &c. The
island is well stored with homed cattle,
sheep, horses, &c. This island was first
discovered by Christopher Columbus. It
was taken possession of by the French in
1635, who drove the natives into the
mountains. In 1759, it was taken by a
British squadron, and was restored to
France at the peace of 1763b It was
again taken by the British in 1794; but
was xetaken by the French in 1795. In
1810, it was again taken possession of by
a ftitish annament; and, in 1814, was
restored to the French. Population,
120,000: whites, 12,500; slaves, 101,000 ;
fi«e negroes, 6500.

GuAOET, Marguerite Elie; one of the
most distinguished leaders of the Giron-
dists. (See Girondigta,)

GuAiACUM ; a genus of plants, contain-
ing four or five arborescent species, natives
of the West Indies and the tropical parts
of America. The yellovriah-brown gum
resin, bearing the same name, is obtained
by wounding the bari^ of one or more of
these trees. It has a bitter, aromatic taste,
is sudorific, and is finequendy employed in
chronic rheumatism, sciatica, &c. The
wood itself possesses similar medicinal
properties. The leaves are opposite, pin-
nate, and tlie peduncles axillary, bearing
sinffle blue fiowers. The wood is exceed-
ingly hard, so much so as fiiequently to
biiak the tools employed in cutting it ; of a
pale yellow color near the exterior, and
blackjsh brown at the heart ; specifically
heavier than wrater ; and is well known un-
der the name of lignummliB. It is used fi>r
a variety of purposes, as for the wheels and
cogs of sugar mills, for pulley s, bowls, and a
variety of ornamental articles of furniture,
as it 18 susceptible of a veiy fine polish.
The tree has now become very scarce in
Jamaica and St Dominco, large quantities
having been cut down ror exportation.

GuAL, Pedro, a civilian by education,
of the province of Carthagena, in Colom-
bia, has been distinguish^ in that coun-
try's war of independence in various im-
portant stations. In 1814, he was the
presiding officer of tlie chamber of repre-
sentatives of his province. At that time,
a project was agitated for creating a con-
federation of the littoral provinces, to ex-
tend Urorn the mouth of the Orinoco to
the boundaries of the couunandancy of

P^mama, with MarMaybo, or some place
in the valleys of CAcuta, for its cmoIbL
Sr. Gual proposed the appelhtion of €b-
lombia for the new rBpobuc, and thus led
to the adoption of this name for the union
aAerwards fonned of the whole of New
Granada and Venezuela. In 1821, he
was a member of the fimt general con-
gress of Colombia, which produced the
constitution of that vear. AilerwBrdB ha
became secretary of the department of
foreign affidxs ; and, in 1826^ he was ap-
pointed to represent his government m
the congress of Panam4, and attended
the various meetings of that body as one
of its members. O wine to his having re-
sided some time in Butimore, he is per-
sonally known and esteemed in the U.
States.

GuAMAif OA ; a town in Peru, the see of
a bishop, whose diocese extends over sev-
eral districts ; Ion. TT S& W.; lat. 12°
50^ N. ; population stated from 18to26i/)00.
This city was founded for the convenien-
cy of the trade carried on betwoen lima
and Cusco. There are three parochial
churches, one for the Spaniards aiod two
for Indians, besides the cathedral and sev-
eral other churches and convents. In it
is a university, which has a large reve-
nue, for the study of philosophy, divinity
and law.

GuANAHANi. (See C(U MantLS

GuANAXDATo ; a state (formeny an in-
tendancy) of Mexico, bounded N. by San
Luis Potosi, £. by Mexico, S. by Mecho-
acan, and N. W. by Guadalaxara and Za-
catecas; populadon, 382,829; -52 leagues
lon^ and 31 broad; square leagues, 911.
It IS the most populous state in Mexico,
and is fiunous for its rich mines. It con-
tains 3 cities, 4 towns, 37 villages, and 33
parishes. Tlie most elevated point of this
mountainous country, according to Hum-
boldt, is 9235 feet above the sea.

GuAifAXUATO, or Santa F^ Guaitax-
UATO ; ci^, Mexico, capital of the slate of
the same name ; 140 miles north-west of
Mexico ; Ion. lOO* 55^ W. ; laL 2P N. :
population within the city, 41,000 ; and, in-
cluding the mines surrounding the city,
the buildinsB being contiguous, 70,600.
It is situated in a narrow defile, henuned
in by mountains, theground on which the
city is built bein^ 6836 feet above the sea.
The streets are medlar, but the city is
well built, and contams three convents^ a
college, two chapels and five hermitaf^
The mines of Uuanaxuato are the most
jiroductive in the world. The mines of
the intendancj yiekled, fit>m 1796 to 180(3^
$40,000,000 ui gold and silver; nettiy

GUANAXUATO— GUARDS.

$5^000,000 per amnini, and nearly equal
to one fourui of the whole quantity of the
gold and sUver produced in Mexico.

GuANCA VsLiCAy.or HuAircA Vei.ica;
juiiadiction in the bishopric of Guaman-
ga, in Pefu. The town which sives name
to this ffovemment was founded on ac-
count of the &mou8 rich quicksilver mine,
and to the working of it the inhabitants
owe their subsistence.

GuANCA Velica, town, Peru, in the di-
ocese of Guamanga, and comtal of a juris-
diction of the same name ; oO miles north-
west pf Guamanga, IdO south-east of Li-
ma; Ion. W4I& W. ; lat 12^ 45^ a ; pop-
uJadon 5,20a Itia 12,308 feet above the
level of the sea. The buiklings are of
stone, more or less porous. It stands In a
breach of the Andes, has a chanceable and
cold climate, and is one of the richest
towns in Peru. This town is famous for
its mines of mercuiy, also for its gold and

Bilv<K'.

Guards ; troops whose particular du^
it is to defend the person of a civil ormil-
itaiy rulec In modem times, the tenn
^mrd has been used to designate corps
distinguished from the troops of the line
by superior character, or only by rank and
dresBL The interest of the govemors be-
ing often difierent from that of the sovem-
ed, and the nileis being also often fiable to
be called to account for the evils suiiered
by the people, sovereigns have had guards
fifomthe most ancient timea The As-
syrian and Persian monarchs had body
guaids, from whom the generals of the
troops were taken. Alexander formed a
guard of nobles, and many such have ex-
isted in modem times. These guards of
Alexander were the sons of the noblest
persons of the empire, and were divided
into two classes. The inferior class guard-
ed the exterior of the palace or tent, took
care of the king's horses, &c. From
among them were chosen the hdari, or
friends, who dined with the monarch, and,
in the field and at the chase, never le^ his
side. Two of their number watched his
bed-room. He. promoted them to be gen-
erals ; and several of them, lifter his death,
became monarchs of those countries
wliich, during his life, they had ruled as
his sovemors. Still more like modem
guaroB were the cargvratpides (the silver-
shieidedj, commanded by Nicanor, son of
Pamiemo. The pr<Btoriani (q. v.) were
the guards of the Roman emperors, and,
an later times, had the greatest influence
on the election of the emperors, some-
times the entire control of it In their licen-
tioumesB and political importance they re-

sembled tlie Janizaries, the guards of die
sultan. In &ct, in eveiy real despotism,
the tendency of the body guards is, to be-
come the masters. (See JomzoriM.) At
a kter period, the trabanU and luUfckien
(archers) guarded the persons of the Ro-
man-Gemaan emperors ; and similar troops
were maintained at other courts. In £d
middle a^ distinguished peisons, in tur-
bulent cities, often had guards ; at least, this
was frequendy the case in the larser cities
of Italy, and, at one time, every cardinal had
his own ffuard. The Corsicans were then
employed for this service in Rome. But,
until recent times, guards were merely
destined to protect the person of the mon-
arch, or some distinguished person. When
the interest of the monarch is differonl
from that of the nation, it is safisr to ciiooee
forei^^ners for body-euards, as not having
any mteresi in the oisputas between the
two parties; hence the Scotch archers of
Louis XI, and the Swiss of the BouitNons.
In France, their number seems first to
have been augmented by the ostentatious
LfOuis XIV, me idol of monarchists. Ab
his plan of government was, to avail him-
self of the commons against the nobles, and
of a standing army against the commons,
the number and importance of the guards
were much increased. The motnm du rot
in his reign amoimted to 8000 men, but
still retained, more or less, the character
of household troops, — that is, it Vras their
dvty to guard the person and palaces of
the kings. Most monarchs had similar
troops, and maiw of the smaller ones were
distinguished for the splendor of their
ffuards. The petty princes of Gennany
had brilliant corps of Swiss, Hevduken,
&c. Frederic the Great led his battalion
of body-guards into the fire, like other
troops. He had several battalions of in-
^try and several souadrons of cavahy as
guards ; troops df oistinguished courage
and remarkanle height Height, at this
time, was considered one of the chief ex-
cellences of a soldier. The guards were,
therefore, to excel all other troops in this
quality ; and they were indeed a rare col-
lection of giants. The Russian guards
were more numerous. In 1785, they
amounted to 10,000 men. Napoleon's,
however, were the finest guaraa, and
among the finest troops that ever existed.
He remtes (in Las Cases's Mhwrialj vol.
2, page 33, edit of 1824), that his nanow
escape fixun being taken prisoner, inacas-
tie OB the Mincio, led to the estaUishment
of troops whose destination was the per-
sonal safety^ of the commander. He call-
ed tkemgtiuiw: these were body-guards.

GUARDS-GUARDS, NATIONAL.

When he bec&me the head of the govern-
ment, and all Europe was arraved against
the revolutionaiy principles of France, it
was natural, more partieiilariy after he had
conceived the plan of reestabhsfaing a he-
reditary throne, that he should v^di to
have a corps, which might serve, in every
respect, as a model to his whole army,
and which, at the same tim^ would be
particularly attached to him. He there-
rore instituted his consular euards, and, af^
terwards, the imperial guaitte, which form-
ed a complete eorp$ d^camUty with artillery
and cavaJiy, and of which he made use,
in battles, only in decisive moments. He
could confidently rely on theuL They
were the &iU of the army : none were ad-
mitted who had been punished by a court-
martial In 1612, the imperial guards
consisted of one division of old guards
(three regiments of garde-grenadiers and
two re^mentB of garde-chasseurs) and
tveo divisions of young guards, consisting
of six regiments oi garde-iiraiUewrSy six
regiments of earde-voUigeurSf one regi-
ment of garde-chasseurs, one renment of
garde-grvnadiersj one of garde-^anqueurSy
each containing two battalions of 800
men. The cavalry consisted of srena-
diers, dragoons, chasseurs, chewtuxlegers^
lanciersy Mamelukes and gendarmerie
d'OUe, The artillery had 1») pieces of
cannon. After the disasters of 1812, the
imperial guard was reorganized on the
same basis. Every one Imows how no-
bly the old guards left the st^ of histoi^
on tlie field of Waterioo. When Louis
XVIII was put upon the throne of his
brother, he abolished the imperial guards —
a measure which, according to some wiit-
ers, he afterwards regretted— and, instead
of them, the ancient household troops
were again introduced, viiiich had been,
in part, abolished, even before the revolu-
tion — ^the gardes-du-corps, the gardes-de-
la-jHnie, me cent Smsses, the nwusque-
iaxres noirs and gm, &C., most of them
commanded by emigrants, two of the
bodies by Berthier and Marmont The
cent Suisses looked ridiculously in their
dress, which appeared ludicrous even be-
fore the revolution. But, after the hun-
dred days, real guards were established,
and several battahons of Swiss. The fate
of both, in July, 1890, is well known.
(See France.) There are now no royal

fuards in France. In England, the house-
old troops or guards consist of the life-
^ards, the royal regiment of horse-
ffuarda, and three regiments of foot-guards.
In Russia, the guards form a numerous
corps, vdiich, on the death of Alexaiider,

and previoiulyi showed diat many amonc
them had the spirit which, as we have wad,
the guards of despots always have, more
or less; though, at present, Russia has
nothing to fear from them similar to the
conduct of the Strelitz (q. y,), because
even the Russian autocrat coveras, in
some degree, by means of lavrs. The
Prussian ffuards fbrm a whole corps d^ar-
nUe. In Austria, the guards, though noore
numerous than formerly, are still merely
body-guards of the sovereign, and there-
fore their number is comparatively smalL
Noble guards, in which only sons of no-
blemen could serve, have sometimes been
formed, a private in which had the rank
of ensign. They have generally proved
useless in moments when their services
were needed.

Guards, Mtxiional; an institution which
has acquired historical importance in the
politics of France, and, according to aU
appearance, vrill now become more im-
portant than ever. It was desirable that
the popular par^, in the be^ning of the
revolution, snoufd have forces on which
they could rely, both for maintaining or-
der and resisting the attempts of the court
party, incase it should be necessary ; as,
for instance, the court had eariy marched
90,000 men, under the duke de Brogtie,
tovrards Paris. July 19, 1789, after mat
disorders had occurred in Paris, and the
day before the BastUe was taken, a muni-
cipal committee was formed in the hM-
de-vQUy to provide for safety and order.
They invited the lieuterumt of the police
to advise with them ; and, within a few
hours, a plan was prepared for arming the
citizens. The armed force was to consist
of 48,000 men, to be drawn from the va-
rious electoral districts. They first adopt-
ed green as their color, taking branches
of trees as their badges ; but, as it was re-
membered that this vnis the color of the
livery of the count d'Aitois (afterwards
Charles X, brother of Louis XVI), who
was highly unpopular on account of his
arbitral sentiments, it was abandoned ;
and it is commonly believed that the col-
ors of the ci^ of Paris (blue and red),
were united with that of the king (white).
But the oriffin of the tricolor is not Quite
certain. (See the article TVicoUn-,) The
plan of arming a portion of the citizens
was adopted vrith great readiness, because
it was necessary to preserve order. Tins
is the origin of the national guards, af>
terwards so important. On the 14th, the
Bastile was taken; on the 15th, Bailbr,
prendent of the assembly, was made
mayor of Paris, and the marquis de La-

GUARDS, NATIONAL.

fsLjettB commaDdant-feperal of the militia
of Paris. June 13, 1790, the natiooal as-
sembly decreed that, to enjoy the rights of
citizenship, it was necessoiy to be a mem-
ber of the national ^tiaid. September S9,
1791, a decree was issued fbr the orguazar
tion of the national gu^rdd. A standing
municipal and departmental nationu
guard was herewith established, to be
raised by ^oluntaiy enlistment, in the pro-
portion of 1 to every 20 citizens; they
chose their own officers, and received
pay, arms and uniform. The solemn
declaration of the national assembly, De-
cember 29, 1791, that the French nation
renounces all wan of conquest, and will
aever employ its arms against the liberty
of any nation, was connected with this
measure. In May, 1792, the number of
the battalions of me departmental nation-
al guards was fixed at 216. But the meas-
ures of Austria and Prussia, as well as the
arming of the emigrants on the frontier,
obliged the Firench government to assume
amflitaiyatdmde; and the national guards
became a great support to the anny, By dif-
fusing a imlitaiy ^irit throup^hout the na-
tion, and training many individuals, who
afterwards joined the anny. Octdt>er5,
1795 (13 Vend^miaire), Bonaparte, acting
under Barns, led the troops of the con-
vention against the national guards of the
sections of Pans, who had declared
against the system of tenorism. In con-
sequence of the events of this day, the
Stan of the national guard of Paris was
dissolved, October 6, and the command
confened upon the conunander-m-chief
of the army of the interior ; and thus the
genuine national guard, a militta, under
the civil authorities, destined to maintain
order, was abolished. Some mouths
later, the directory introduced movable
columns, in lieu of the stationary depart-
mental guards. August 12, 1797, the
two legislative councils gave the na-
tional iruards a new organization, of
which Napoleon retained the essential fhtb*
mres, but adapted to his miHtanr policy.
Numerous legions were formed, which
watched the coasts and fortresses on the
fiontleis, or served in the interior, whilst a
numerous gmdarmeriej entirely distinct
from the national guards, formed a power-
ful and active police, vrith a military or-
ganization. In 1810, Napoleon formed a
regiment of four battalions of the nation-
al guards, which had distinguished them-
selves on the occasions when the English
had landed. This regiment was called
the national guards of tht guardt. March
10, 1812, Napoleon issued the decree for

th« fbrmatioD of the natknud guards in
three 6or», as they were called, of which
the fiist comprised all men capable of
bearing anns, from 20 to 26 yean of age ;
the second, all able-bodied men fiom 26
to 40 vears ; the third, or arritre ban^ all
men fit for service, fixim 40 to 60 yean.
Of the first ban, he called out 100 cohoits,
of 1000 men each, fbr active service, who
were not to fight beyond the fit>ntien ; but,
in 1813, they declared, at least a part of
them, their willingness to serve beyond the
fixMitiers. The correspondence between
Napoleon and Joseph, his brother, just
before the entrance of the allies into Paris,
shows that the emperor still relied on the na-
tional guards for tne defence of the cq^tal ;
but the want of arms^ the defection of the
highest dvil and military officers^ and,
more than all, the aversion of the people
to a ccmtinuance of the struggle, prevent-
ed such a measure. After the restoratkm
of the Bouibons, the government endeav-
ored to make the national guards depend-
ent upon itself! Jlfeimetir (the brother of
the kinc ) was appointed commander-in-
chief of all the national ffuards of France.
The guards were not aUowed to choose
any of their offioen (see Jhmce» in 1618):
but, in 1818, the staff of the national
guards vnis dissolved, and Momitwr re-
signed the chief command. The national
guuds were again put under the prefect
and the minister of the interior. April 29,
1827, the national guard of Paris, on an
occasion when it vras reviewed by the
king, having ventured to demand the re-
moval of the ministry (that of Vill^le, see
JVanee), and the banishmentof the Jesuil%
was dissolved on the SOth. It vras reviv-
ed at Paris, during the memorable days of
July, 1830. July 30, general Lafiiyette
was appointed, by the provisionary gov-
ernment, commander-in-chief of the na-
tional guards, in which office he was con-
firmed by king Louis Philip, receivinf^at
the same time, the marshal's staff The
new charter *^ intrusts the charter and the
rights which it consecrates to the patriot-
ism and courage of the national guard and
all the citizens'' (article 66); so that, it
wouM seem, the national guards have be-
come a fundamental institution of the
kingdom, and cannot again be constitu-
tionally abolished. C^mj/laints have
been made, that the commuid of this im-
mense power is lefl in the hands of one
man, and that the national guards are not,
as formerly, a muaici|jal force fi>r the
maintenance of order. An ordinance of
October 9, 1830, reorganizes the national
guards. They are divided into movable

GUARDS, NATIONAlr-CKJATIfliALA.

and BtadoDaiT ; dieiinpc, compocied of men
from 20 to 90 yean of age, iDclusive, and
onl^ to be called into service by a kw, or,
while the chambers are not in seesion, by
an ordinance, which must become a law
during the next session, is to be " an aux-
iliary of the army for the defence of the
territory, — the guard of the frontiers, to re-
pel invasion, and maintain public order in
the interior." Corporals, subalterns and
sub-lieutenants are to be elected by the
members ; the other officers.ar^ to be ap-
pointed by the king. When this body is
oiganized, the members are subject to mil-
itary discipline ; yet, when the national
guuds renise to obey oiden, or leave their
corps without autliority, they are to be
punished only by imprisonment, not to ex-
ceed five years. The Prussian Landwehr
K something similar, but more military in
its OTj^anization, without the privilege of
•choosmg officers, and subjected to an ab-
sDihite military discipline. (See MiUikL)
The citizen guards established in Bekium
during the revolution of the year 1890,
were an imitation of the French national
guard&

GuARiNi, Giovanni Battista, bom at
Ferrara, 1^, was descended from a no-
Me fiimily, distinguished fi>r its influenoo
on the revival of leairnnir and «f poetiy.
After having studied in Ferrara, Pisa and
Padua, and lectured, in his nattve city, on
the ethics of AristotJe, he entered the ser-
vice of the duke Alphonso II, who appr&-
mted his talents, knitted him, and sent
faim as his ambassaaor to the Venetian
republic, to Emanuel Filibert, duke of
Savoy, to Gre^ry XIII, Maximilian II,
and Henry or Valois, who was chosen
king of Poland ; and, when the latter as-
cended the throne of France under the
name of Henry HI, Guarini was sent to
the Polish estates to propose the duke as a
candidate for the throne of Poland. The
Mure of this embassy, which involved
the sacrifice of a part of Guarini's own
property, was taken advantage of, by hia
jealous rivals, to deprive him of the &yor
of his prince ; and, after all his services, he
was dismissed. He now passed his time
in literary retirement, partly in Padua, and
parthr on his oWn estate, but was recalled,
m 15JB5, to the office of secretary of state.
Ho again attained b, distinguished rank in
the court, but, two years after, retured a
second time, because the duke, in a dis-
pute between Guarini and his daughter-
m-lavi;^ gave a deci«on which displeased
birp. He then continued some time in pri-
vate life. In 1597, he entered the service
of Ferdinand I, grand-duke of Tuscany,

which he soon quitted. Suspecting that
the duke had &vored the marriage of his
youngest son, which had been conchided
privately, against Guariid's will, he left
his court, and retired to that of the duke
of Urbino. After some time, he returned
to Ferrara, but resided alternately at Yea-
ice, Padua and fiome, on account of the
numerous lawsuits in which his litigious
spirit involved him. In 1605, he went as
an ambassador of his native city to the
court of Rome, to cooffratulate Paul V
on his elevation. He died at Venice, in
1612. Guarini is one of the most elegant
authors and poets of Italy, as is shown by
his letters, his SegreUtrioy a dialogue, his
comedy Uldropica, his BSmtj and, above
all, by his Pagtor Fido. This pastoral
drama, which was first represented at Tu-
rin, on the marriage of Cnarles Emanuel,
duke of Savoy, with Catharine of Austria,
and afterwards fi^quentiy brought upon
the stage, and translated into many lan-
guages, Imis rendered him immortal The
flligfatest glance shows that this piece is
by no means an imitation of the wMnto,
to which it is superior in ingenuity, epi-
gnmmatic trnns and poeticid omament,
— cliaracteristics which nave Inrou^t upon
him undeserved reproach, as being ill
adapted to the pastoral drama. Guarini's
wniks appeared at Ferrara, in 1737 (four
volumes, Ito.). His Trattato deUa poiiU-
ea LiberUi (written about 1599) was fixst
minted at Venice, in 1818, with his life by
Ruggieri.

GuASTALU. ; a duchy in Upper Italy,
on the Po^ in the Austrian dojznnicMis,
and the duchy of Modena, containing 33
square miles, with 7900 inhabitants. Its
chief place, of the same name, on the
Crostolo and Po, contains 5500 inhalMt-
anta. Guastalla formeriy belonged to
the dukes of Mantua. The line becom-
ing extinct in 1746, it was given to Parma,
and, in 1795, was comprised, with all the
dominions of this house, in the Italian
repubtic. In 1815, it was annexed to the
duchy of Parma, and given to Maria Lou-
isa, wife of Napoleon, as duchess of
Parma.

GuATiMALA (for an account of the
county of this name, see Cetdnd Ameri-
ca). Guatimala is also die largest of the
five states of the republic of Central
America, formed fit>m the okl captaiii-
generalafaip of the same name. It ues w
the north-western part of the republic,
bordering on Mexico^ the gulf of Hondu-
ras, and the Pacific ocean. It is divided
into l^pmUdM,

GcTATiMALA, La Nubva (fht Nbw)\ seat

GUATDfAIA-OUEBERS.

«f die ledenl ^QfvemuMDt of CiiDtnl
Ammc% wrtMe^UKoptl see, atuaied on
the river Vacaa^ near the P8ci6c ooeen,
with a irood haifoor ; let 14^ 4Xy N.; Ion.
9r25^W. In April, 1830, k WB8 needy
destroyed by an earthquake. Previous to
this, the irihat»tants were about 40,000;
the houaes were handsome, but built low,
on account of the freauency of earth-
quakes ; the streets broad, and the nume-
rous churehee and public buiidinoB diff-
tinguiflhed for their elegance. It was
founded in 1775^ in consequence of the
destruction of the old city oy an earth-

GoATA {ptidkan); a genus of plants,
aflied to the mynle, containing nearly 40
species, natives of the intertropical parts
ik Anaerica, with one or two exceptiona
They are trtes or shrubs, with opposite
entire leaves, and axillaiy white flowenu
The P.pjfttferum attains the height of 18
ordO foet, and is now cukivated in all the
inteitropcal parts of the globe, for the
oke ofiis fruit, which hss a sweet, ame*
able flavor, and is ccmsidered very whole-
some. The young branches of this bee
sre quadrangular; the leaves, oval-acute,
and the fruit shaped like a pear, and about
as large as a pullet's e^, yellow without,
with a fleshy pulp, and is eaten either in
a crude state, or in the form of jellies.
The wood, which is very hard, is much
used for various mechanical purposes, as
also for burnings and makes excellent
charcoaL This tree hss been cultivated,
wid& complete success, in the south of
France,

GuAXACA, or Oaxaca ; a state of Mexi-
co, situated between Puebia and Guati-
mala, about 240 miles in length and 120
in breadth. The soil is fertile, producing
com, maize, cocoa, cochineal, suoar, hon-
ey, and fruits of every kind. Here are
mines of gold, sibrer and crvstaL Mul-
lieny trees, for the cultivauon of silk,
liave been introduced by the Spaniards.
There are 150 Indian towns, besides
300 villages and upwards of 150,000 na-
tivea, who are tributary to the Spaniards.
Population, 534,000.

Udaxaca ; a town in Mexico, capital of
the state of the same name ; 90 miles S. by
W. of Vera Ciuz, 195 miles S. S. E. of
Mexico; Ion. 98^ 96" W.; lat 17° 30^ N.
Population in 1792, 24,000. This town,
also called AnUqwa% is the see of a bish-
op. It is agreeably situated in a valley,
on a river abounding with fish, which
nms into the Alvarado.
. GuATAquiL, a province of Colombia,
in New GraniBda, lies akmg the Pacific

ocean, on the Guayaquil river, and oa the
north side of the cuff of the same name.
P<^iidalion, about 9o,OOa St^>le8, cocoa,
cotton, tobacco, salt, wax, riee and honey.

Guataquil; a city of Cofombia, aiul
capital of the province of the same name,
on the west side of Guayaquil river. It
possesses an excellent seaport Ship-dm-
oer abounds in the vidmty, &t>m which
many vesseb have been built It is 150
miles S. S. W. of Quito; Ion. 79» 56^ W.;
kt2°ll'a

Gi7ATAqurL Bat, or GuLV, extends fixmi
eujpt St Helena to Ponuide Picoe, up-
wards of 100 miles ; and, extending in-
land, in the form of a triangle, receives, at
its bead, Guayaquil river. The gulf is
chequered by numerous iedaiids, one of
which. Puna, is of conriderabte size.

GuBiTZ, Frederic William, one of the
best wood-engravers in Germany, was
bom in 1784. He is professor in the
academy at Berlin, and teacher of the ai|
of engraving on. wood, which he has car-
ried to creat perfection. He tb also a
writer of some talent, and has edited a
^periodical {Der OtHUschqftar) in Berlin,
since 1817.

GuDoxoR {gobioy Cuv.). These fish are
distinguished by having the dorsal and
anal fois short, and without spines. At the
angle on each side of the mouth, there is
a small beard of a quarter of an inch in
lenffth. Ndther jaw is fiimished with
teeui, but, at the entrance of the throat,
there are two triangular bones, that per-
form the ofSce of grinders. These fidi
are taken in gentle streams, and are gener-
ally of small size, measuring only about
six inches. They are brought together by
raking the bed of the river, which makes
them crowd in shoals to the spot, expect-
ing food fit>m this disturbance. Tbev
are spoken of by Aristotle ; and old Wit
louafaby says that they are preferred, by
the rlngUsb, to every other nver fish.

GuxBERS, or GusBRKs, or Gauxrs (i. e.,
infidels); the fire-worshippen in Persia;
in Incua called Pcotmu, They call
themselves BehatdUj or followera of the
true fidth, and live chiefly in the deseits
of Caramania, towards the Persian gulf,
and in the province Yerd Keram. . These
people, who are but litde known, are la*
oorious and temperate cultivators of the
ground. The monnera of the Guebers are
inild. They drink wine, eat all kinds of
meat, marry but one wife, and Uve chaste-
ly and temperately. Divoroe end polyga-
my are prohibited by their relision ; but if
a wife remains barren during tnefint nine
yean of marriage, the husband may take

GUEBER&-OCJELF8.

a noond wife. Tliey worthip one Su-
pfeme Being, whom they call the EUmtd
SpHtf or YwL The mm, moon and plan-
ets they beUere to be peopled with ration-
al beingSy acknowledge light as the primi-
tive cause of the good, darkness as that of
evily and wondiip fire, as it is said, from
which they, have received their name.
But they themselves say, that they do not
woi^p fire, but only find in it an image
of the incomprehensible God ; on which
account they ofier up their prayers before
a fire, and maintain one uninteiraptedly
burning on holy places^ which their pro-
phet Zoroaster fq. v.), they say, kindled
4000 yean ago. Their holy book is called
ZefuMveito. (q. v.) One of the peculiar-
itiee of the Guebers is, that they do not
buiy their 'dead, but expoae the bodies
upon the towers of their temples, to be
devoured by birds. They obs<^e which
part the birds first eat, uom which they
judge of the fate of the deceased.

G0KLF8, or GuELPHs (from the Italian
Guef/i and the German fFe(/en); the
name of a celebrated family, which, in
the 11th centuiy, was transplanted from'
Italy to Germany, where it became the
ruling race of several countries. The
family still continues in the two hues of
Brunswick, the royal in England, and the
ducal in Germany. Accorainff to Eich-
hom*s UrgesMchU dea HauBta dtr Wtlftny
tliia house first appears distinctly in the
9th century, in the reign of Charlemagneb
The memory of this ancient name has
lately been revived by tlie foundation of
the Hanoverian Guelf order. (See Han-
over.) The term Gue{^is abo applied to a
powerful party in the middle ages, which^
m Germany, and, at a later period, in
Italy, opposed the German emperors and
their aaherents, called the Oibeknes, (See
Frederic von Raumer's Gtachichte dor
ffiiAeyutou/en, Leipac, 182a) The fiunily
of the Guelfe, in different branches, pos-
sessed considerable estates in Germany, m
the 11th century. Azzo, of the family of
Este in Italy, lord of Milan, Genoa and
other cities of Lombardy (died in 10971
acquired some of these estates by his
marriage with Cunigunde, the heirees of
the Guelfs. His son, Guelf I (died 1101),
became duke of Bavaria, ana inherited
the estates of the. other Guelf lines. The
son of Guelf I acquired, by marriage, the
estates in Saxony which belonged to his
wife's father, duke Magnus. The emper-
or Lothaire gave (1137) the duchy of Sax-
miy to his son-in-law, Henry the Gene-
rous, grandson of Guelf I. This Hemy.
oo the death of Lothaire, opposed Conrad

Sof the house of Hohenstaufen, wl)o
been elected emperor, was put under
the ban of the empire, and most of hw
vast posseasious confiscated. Afler his
death, his son, the fiunous Hemy the
IJon,' received, in 1139, only the duchy
of Saxony, and his hereditary estates in
this coundy, the Bavarian neft having
been given to his uncle Wolf. In 1140,
vinsr having broken out between Wolf and
Frederic, brother to the emperor Conrad,
the words fVdf and WmUingm became
the war-cries of the respective parties iu
the battle at Weinsberg. WailNingeii, in
the present kingdom ofWfirtembeig, was
an estate of the house of Hohenslanfen
(q. v.), to which Conrad beloiKged, and
the Italians afterwords changed the word
(as to is oflen changed into £-, q. v.) into
GhtbdUnL The contest, which, m the be-
ginning, vras merely between the two
Runilies, spread, at length, more and more
vridely, and became an obstinate struggle
between two political parties. This contest
was not a mere fiunily quarrel, like many
of the disputes of the middle ages. It
' vras a strife of opinions, involvii^g impor-
tant interests, conducted, it is true, in
many instances, with a senseless disr^pard
both of justice and expediency, owing to
the crude notions of the period, rrapecting
the rights and weU-bemg of nations, but
still having great objects in view. The
ware of the Guel& and GKbelines became
the struggle between the sphitual and
secular power, through which it was
necessary that western Europe should
pass, to shake off the dominion of the
popes, which was now on the point of
cru^ing idl national independence, afber
having completed its proper work of rais-
ing Europe from a state of barbarism.
(See Qrtgcfry Vll.) The popes^ who en-
deavored to reduce the German emperors
to acknowledge their supremacy, and the
cities of Italy, strugghng for independence
and deliverance from the oppreanve yoke
of these same emperors, formed the party
of the Guel&. Those who &vorea the
emperora were called Gibdi$u». Italy
underwent ^reat sufferings during tliis
contest, as did Germany also, whi<3i eent
army after airny to be swallowed up in
this lion's cave whence none return^ as
a German emperor called it There is
little doubt that the inconsiderable pro|^-
ress of Germany in public law and politi-
cal well-being was, in a great measure^
owing to this struggle, which cx>n6iinie(i
her strength and engrossed her attention.
The contest continuM, with bitterness, for
almost 300 years. These parties appearoci

GUELFS-GUERILLAS.

in Italy luuler many difierent names^ qb
the hianehi and neri (white and black), in
Florenoe, &c. Hiatoiy shows no in-
Btance of a more untiring and cruel party
sfiirii.

GuEBciNo (properly (jSim^rancesco Bar-
6teri, iwmamed Guercmo da Cento firom
his Bqiiinting)| a celebrated painter, was
lx>m at Cento, near Bologna, in 1590. By
his own genius he discovered the first
pfiaciple»of his art, and afterwards per-
fected himself in the school of Lodovico
Caracci. An academy which he opened
in 1616, attracted a great number of schol-
ais from all parts of £uroi)e. The king
of France ofi^red him the situation of his
&8t paiufier; but he pfeft^rced to accept
an apartment in the palace of the duke of
Modeaa. In his character he was mild,
apr^)lt, courteous and benevolent, and
rea^to assast his fellow artists. He died
in 1666, at Bologna, where he had settled
after the death of Guido. His principal
works are to be found in the museums of
Rome, Parma, Piacenza, Modena, Reggio
and T^uis. The manner which he £st
adopted was too strong, and resemUedthat
of Gsravaggio. His second and best pe-
riod was coinpounded of the Roman, Ve-
netian and ^lognese schools, blended,
however, with somewhat of Caravaggio's
bold opposition of light and shade. His
last manner was a palpable imitation of
Gmdo, and is inferior to the other in
power and elegance. He acquired great
weakh by his profession, which he be-
i»towed libendly m acts of charity, building
chapels and feunding hospitals. Few
painters have labored with so much fecili-
ty and rapidity. Having been reauested
by some monks, on the eve of a leativa],
to paint God the Father, for the grand
akar, he finished the picture in one night,
by torch light. We have, also, on intro-
duction to the art of dravring from his
pen. Guercino, moreovo-, etched some
prints in a style of excellence.

GirERiCKE, Otto von, burgomaster of
Magdeburg, was one of the most distin-
guiSied experimental philosophers of the
17th century. He was bom at Magde-
burg, Nov. So), 1602 ; studied law at I^ip-
eic, Heknstadt and Jena; mathematics,
and particulariy geometrv and mechanics,
at Leyden ; travelled in France and Eng-
land ; acted as chief engineer at Erfurt ;
became, in 1627, counsellor at Magdeburg ;
and, in 1646, burgomaster, and counsellor
of the elector of Braudenbui^, but resign-
ed his offices five years before his deatli,
and repaired to his sons, at Hamburr,
where he died May 11, 1686. In 1650,

VOL. VI. 8

he invented the air-pump, about the time
that a similar idea occurred to Robeot
Boyle in England. This discoverv chang-
ed the whole aspect of natMral philosophy,
and gave rise to a more intimate acquaint-
ance with the nature and effects of air.
In 1654, he made the first public eiperi-
ments with Ids machine, at the diet at
Ratishpn, before the eniperor Ferdinand
III, his son Ferdinand IV, king of Rome,
several electors and other estates of the
empire. The first air-pump, with which
Guericke almost exliaustea the air fit>m
two hemispheres, is preserved in the
royal libraiy. at Berlin. Guericke also
invented an air-balance, and the small
j^lass figures, which were used before the
invention of the barometer (q. vj, to show
the variations of temperature. The press-
ure of the atmosphere he exhibited by
means of two large hollow hemi^eres
of copper and brass, an ell in diameter.
These being fitted closely together, the air
contained in the hollow ^here thus form-
ed was exhausted by means of an air-
pump. Guericke then harnessed horses to
strong rings, attached to the heuuspheres,
and uiey attempted in vain to separate
them. The number of the horses was in-
creased to 30 without success. An addi-
tional number at lengdi made them part
with a loud report. He was also an
astronomer. His opinion, that the return
of comets might be calculated, has been
confirmed. His most important observa-
tions, collected by himself, anppeared at
Amsterdam, in folio (iu 1672]^ entitled
Ea^ptrmeiUa nwa^ vi vocaniMagdehwgica^
dt vacuo SpaUoy &c. (See Mr-Punm.)

Guerillas (Spanish diminutive of^jfuer-
m, war), in the war for Spanish mde-
pendence, was the name of the hght,
irregular (roops, who did much injury to
the enemy, wtiile tlieir disconnected char-
acter and active movements secured tliem
fifom suffering much in rctuni. They
consisted chiefly of peasants, who, in the
ardor of patriotic zeal and religious fenati-
cism, having put to deatli such French-
men as fell into tlieir bunds on the first
retreat of the French forces, fled to the
mountains, on their retuni, to avoid their
resentment, collected in numbers, chose
leaders, and carried on a partisan waifiue,
without being paid or dr^sed in unifbim.
They appeared sometimes in small bands,
sometimes to the number of 1000, han^g
on the outskirts, picking off nngle soldiers,
attacking small detachments, intercepting
couriers; and it was with difficulty that
the French could keep up any communi-
cations. The general Juan Martin Diaz,

GUERILLAS— GUERNSEY.

sumamed El Empuinado (q. v.), fiiat or-
ganized them with some syfltem, in the
vicinity of Madrid, after Saragoflsa had
been taken by the French ^1806), and
3|kun, by the defeat of its anniea, seemed
lost beyond recovery. Romana, however,
extended the plan much further. They
contributed to sustain the confidence of the
people in the final success of their arms,
and to maintain a ^irit of determined re-
sistance. They fought even to the c^iital,
which was occupied by the enemy. It
was a no less important circumstance, that
every advantage gained bv the Spanish or
English troops was proclaimed, by their
means, in all quarters, with the rapidity of
lightning, apd oflen, of course, with great
exaggerations. Sir Robert Wilson (q. v.)
had likewise a great influence in the or-
ganization and success of the gueriDas.

GuiaiN ; a pupil of Regnault; one of
the most distinguished painters of the
modem French scho^. His style is noble
and graceful; his coloring transparent and
haraionioua The first picture, by which
he made himself known, was the Sacrifice
before the Statue of iEseulapius, taken
firom the Idyls of Gesner. The work has
defects, which are easily accounted for by
the youth and inexperience of the artist.
It is in the galleiy of Versailles. He next
painted Geta murdered by his Brother
Canicalla,andaflerwardsCoriolanu& His
Marcus Sextus, in 1800, excited general
admiration. It breathes the deepest feel-
ing. The noble exile is represented as on
his return, when he finds his wife dead.
Gu^rin's next work, HyppoUtus and PhcB-
dra, in 1802, was honoraoly mentioned by
the judges of the decennial prizes. This
picture has many beauties, though there
is something extravagant and theatrical
about it It was received with great ap-
plause, but the modest artist was not sat-
isfied with it, and desired to study the
true spirit of the art in Italy. After his
return, it was proposed to hiui to paint
Napoleon pardoning the Revolters at Cai-
ro, and he knew how to take advantage
of tlie fevoroble points of the subject The
noble forms, me glowing colors, the
splendid Oriental costume, the brilliant
sty, the peculiarities of the country, the
unity of action and variety of feeling, die
contrast between the Europeans and Asi-
atics^ — all was made subservient to the
genius of the artist On the left stands
Napoleon, elevated above the rest, and in
profile. The expression of prudent distrust
and silent earnestness in the emperor, is a
masterpiece of execution. The distribu-
tion of light is admirable. A tree hang-

ing over a group of Frenchmen, throws
upon the Egyptians shade interspersed
with streaks flight, so that the tawny in-
habitants form a stroncer contrast with
the brilliant and cloudless sIqt. For the
exhibition of 1812, Gu^rin painted his
splendid Andromache. His Cephalus and
Aurora is ftill of elegance, and possesses
an almost magic charm. In 1817, the
artist exhibited two still finer paintings —
a Dido listening to the Stoiy of iGneas,
and a Clytemnestra at the moment that
iEgistbus is instigating her to assassinate
her sleeping husband. It was a stroke
of genius to select a sombre, red light for
this scene. Gu^rin has painted but few
portraits, but they all do honor to his
skilL In 1817, the king proposed to hkn
to paint the portrait of the hero of La Ven-
due, Henri de la Rochejacquelin, in the
act of storming an entrenchment It is
a highly expressive picture. Gu^rin is a
member of the acaaemy of fine arts and
of the legion of honor. He is amiable
and unpretending.

GuB&ivsET, an island in the English
Channel, near the coast of Normandy and
Brittany, lies in Mount St MichaePs bay,
a spacious gulf formed be cape La Hogue
in Normandy and cape Frehille in Britta-
ny ; in 49« 19^ N. fat ; 2«» 40^ W. km.
llus beautift]} island is 9 miles in length
and about 90 in circumference. It is
abundantly viratered, though, from its lim-
ited size, none of the streams are consid-
erable. The soil throughout is rich and
fertile, and yields very &e pasture. The
cows are much esteemed, }aelding abun-
dance of excellent mDk. A great number
of them are yearly exported to England.
Ve^tables are also excellent, and in great
vanety. Timber, with the exception of
the elm tree, is not lofty, but luxuriant.
Most kinds of fiuit and fiowers grow in
profusion; and so genial is the climate,
that myrtles and seraniums flourish in the
open ground, and the more hardy species
of the oran|fe tree, the Seville, will miotify
with very htde shelter in winter. Thou-
sands of that beautiful flower, tlie Guern-
sey lily, are eroorted yeariy to England
and France. The fig tree attains great
luxuriance, and sometimes reaches a re-
markable size. The aloe tree firequently
blossoms here. One of the most useful
ve^tables is a marine plant, called vorec,
wmch is used both for fuel and manure.
Both the judicial and executive authori-
ties are exercised by a bodv called the
rcnfol cow% composed of 12 jurats, the
procureur or attorney-general, and the
comptroller or solidtor^genereL But the

OUERN8EY-4:^UERRERO.

task of rakuig monev to defray public
expenses, is commitled to what w caHed
the jfofeff of 4dibaratum^-^ political body
coniposed of the coTemor for the time
beings the haiiiH^ & jurats and the pro-
cureur, the 8 rectore of the 10 patisnee.
and the united voices of the constaljiee of
each parish, the total number of Totera
being 83, Application must, however, in
certain cases, be made to the king, for per-
miasioQ to cany into effect the levies pro-
posed by this l>ody. Guernsey is divided
mto ten parishes, the churches appertain-
ing to which were consecrated b^ween
the yean 1111 and 1312. Diasentere,
more particularly the CalWnists and Meth-
odisiB, are veiy numerous, and have sev-
eral chapels. The Roman Catholics are
few. The society of Friends or Quakera
are rather increasing in number. Popu-
lation, 30,827. Steam vessels and sailmg
packets ply daily between Portsmouth,
Plymouth, Southampton, and many other
ports of England, to this island; there is
also a constant communication kept up
between this and the opposite Frenoh
coast

GusRRERo, Vicente, president of the
United Mexican States, is a Creole by
birth, and is said also to be partly of In-
dian extraction. He took anns against the
royalislB at the ve^ commencement of
the revolution in Mexico, and has never
ceased to occupy a prominent position in
the affiure of that country. In 1819, after
Hidalgo, Morelos and Mina had succes-
sively ftjien victims to their zeal in the
cause of independence, and the patriots,
being unsuccessfiil every where, were
captured, cut up or dii^rsed, Guerrero
continued in arms in the province of Val-
ladolid, at the head of a formidable gue-
rilla in the Herra Caliente. The pubuca-
tion and general adoption of the terms of
accommodation between the Mexicans
and Spaniards, proposed bv Iturbide,
known as the plan of Iguala, and the
new impulse thus imparted to the revolu-
tion, gave emfdoyment and importance to
Guerrero once more, until the usurpation
of Iturbide placed him in opposition to all
the steady republicans. When Santa Alia
raised the standard of revolt in 1823, and
the success of the insurgents under him
and Victoria gave the republicans a chance
of overturning the mushroom emperor,
Guerrero, with Bravo, fled from Mexico
in secret, and placed himself at the head
of a body of troops in the west. The re-
sult of all these movements was the de-
thronement of Iturbide, the adoption of
the constitution of 1824, and the election

of \^ctoria as president, and Bravo as vice-
president of the Mexican States. In the
orgaiuzatioh ofpolitical parties which en-
sued, ^neral Chierrero oecame the rally-
ing pomt of the liberal or popi^ party, the
YoiUnos, and was also repeatedly called in-
to active service in his mintaiy capacity, by
reason of the civil troubles which the anx-
ious impartiality of jMwsident Victoria rath-
er tended to augment than to moderate.
In 1827, Guerrero was despatched to Vera
Cruz, to put down the disorderly move-
ment of colonel Rincon, and quelled tiie
rebellion without a struggle. In December,
1827, don Jos^ Montaiio, a colonel in the
army, set afi>ot at Otumba an insurrection
for the forcible reform of the government,
in order to counteract the influence of the
Yorkino party. In Jamiary following,
ffeneral Bravo, the vice-president, who was
the leader of the Escoceses, or tiie aristo-
cratical party, lefl Mexico, in order to join
the rebels, and stationed himself at Tulan-
cin^, where he issued a manifesto de-
claring himself in &vor of •the views of
Montatio. To suppress this insurrection,
general Guerrero was hastily despatched
at the head of a large force, to which Bra-
vo and his associates surrendered witii
little or no resistance. The Yorkinos were
now triumphant Bravo was banished
from the republic ; and Guerrero, as the
most prominent individual of the success-
ful puly, was imiverBaliy 16oked upon as
the probable successor of Victoria in the
presidency. But the Escoceses, and the
Mexicans of Spanish birth, who all be-
longed to that party, and who knew that
their expulsion would be the immediate
conseouencc of the government's beinff
placea entirely in the hand of the Yorki-
nos, rallied all their streneth to mm tiie
scale against Guerrero. Nothing could
exceed the disappointment of the friends
of the latter, when the election of Septem-
ber, 1828, took place, and it appeared
that don Gomer redraza, the secretary of
war, had the votes of ten states, while on-
ly eight declared for Guerrero. It appears
that many moderate men of the Yorkino
party united with the whole body of the
Escoceses to produce this result Pedraza
had been an active partisan of the Yor-
kinos, and had been particularly active
and instrumental in putting down the in-
surrection of Otumba, and with it Bravo,
the hope of the Escoces party. Neverthe-
less, being deemed more moderate in his
political principles than Guerrero, the Es-
coceses tnrew their votes for him, as their
last resource, to prevent the introduction
of a radical and proscriptive administra-

GUERRERO— GUESCLIN.

tion, which they knew would come, if
Guerrero should be elected. The Yorki-
nos loudly exclaimed against the election of
Pediaza, as having been effected by bribery
and milltaiy violence. In a country of
stable laws and well organized govern-
ment, the defeated part}' would have
awaited the result of a constitutional in-

Suify into the legality of the election,
lut in Mexico they order things other-
wise. The Yorkinos determined to resort
to arms to prevent the elevation of Pedra-
za to the presidency ; and g^eral Santa
Aiia, who, since the Ml of Iturbide, had
been hving in comparative retirement at
Jalapa, sauced a small body of troops,
marched to Perote, and gained possession
of the casde, before the ^venunent were
well aware that another civil war had brok-
en out. Here he issued a manifesto, pro-
posing that the people and army ^ould
annul the election of Pedraza ; that Guer-
rero should be declared president; and
that the Spanish residents should be ex-
pelled from Mexico. When informatioa
of these incidents reached the government,
Santa Aiia was denounced as a rebel, and
a force was sent against him, which he
found himself unable to withstand, and
retired into the mountains of Oaxaca. But
meanwhile measures were secretly plan-
ning in the capital for a more decisive
movement in favor of Guerrero. It was dis-
covered by the executive that don Lorenzo
de Zavala, the governor of the state of
Mexico, was in coirespondence vrith San-
ta Aiia. He was arrested, but found
means to escajpe. Soon afterwards, a bat-
talion of militia, aided by some troops of
the line, took possession of the artilleiy
barracks, caUed the acordada, situated on
the outskirts of the city, and, being joined
by general Lobato, by Zavala, and by oth-
er persons of distinction, announced their
intention to annul the election of Pedraza,
and to force the government to expel the
Spaniards. But as the constitutional author-
ities were resolved not to give up the point
without a struggle, a violent contest en-
sued, in some of the principal streets of
the city, during the three first days of De-
cember, in which many persons were kill-
ed on both sides. At length Guerrero
openly joined the insuxgents, with a rein-
forcement of his friends ; on which Pedra-
za lefl the city, and, on the 4th, president
Victoria agreed to a partial accommoda-
tion. ^See Mexico.) Victoria was obliged
immediately to appoint a cabinet favorable
to the insurgents, including GueiTero him-
self as secretary of war. Fmall^', when the
national congress assembled m January,

some of the votes ^ven for Pedraza veere
pronounced to have been illegally obtain-
ed, and Guerrero was declared to be reg-
ularly elected president, with Anastasio
Bustamenteas vice-president The new
magistrates were inducted into office in
April, 1829, soon after which the expedi-
tion of Barradas (see Mexico) gave em-
ployment to the government, and a subject
of engrossinff interest to the people. The
better to enable tlie president to meet tlie
exigency, he was invested ^^th extraor-
dinary powers ; but after the victory over
the Spanish troops, and when the invad-
ing expedition was destroyed, Guerrero
evmcea an unwillingness to relinquish the
dictatorship, which became the cause or
pretext of^ another revolution. He had
previously abolished slavery, September
15, 1829, the anniversary of Mexican inde-
pendence, vnth a promise of indenmity to
the proprietors when the resources of the
ffovermnent pennitted it BviBtamente,
the yice-presiaent, took command of tlie
army of reserve stationed at Vera Cruz,
and commenced his march towards Mex-
ico, for the purpose of reforming the gov-
ernment by force. Guerrero lefl tlie city
to meet him ; but no sooner was he gone,
than the troops in Mexico revolted, and
declared for Bustamente ; in consequence
of whicii, Guerrero, and the other leailerB
of the acordada revolution, resigned their
offices, and Bustnniente assumed the reins
of government. He was not destined, how-
ever, to continue in the tranqiul exercise
of power. Disturbances soon broke out
afresh, and in September, 1890, Guerrero
had collected a laree force in Valladolid,
and established a form of government in
opposition to that of Bustamente, and the
whole country was agitated by troops
in arms, in different parts and under va-
rious chie&, for the purpose of either
preventing or effecting the reinstatement
of Guerrero.

GuEscLiiT, Bertrand du, constable of
France, a man renowned for talent and
courage, was born about the year 1314, at
die casde of Motte-Broon, near Rennes.
The poets derive the origin of his family
from a king of the Moors. Like most of
the nobles of his time, he could neither
read nor write. From childhood, he long-
ed but for war and for Imtde. He unit^
his young companions into a regiment,
made himself their general, and, mviding
them into companies, taught them to form
in order of battle. Acooraing to the de-
scriptions which remain of him, he was
of a vigorous frame, with broad shoulders
and muscular arms. His eyes were smalU

GUESCUN— GUEVARA,

iively, and fiiU of fire. Uk ftce bad noth-
ing pkafling in it **l am very urij," aaid
he whena youth ; ^ I «an never pleaae the
ladieB; but I shall at least know how to
make rnvself teniUe to the enemies of my
king." He rose entirely through his own
exertions. At the age of seventeen, he
won the prize at a tournament at Rennes,
where he had gone against the will and
without the Imowledge of his father.
From this time he was always in arms.
After the ^sastrous battle of Poitiers, in
1356, he came, while king John was yet
a prisoner, to give assistance to his eldest
son, Cfaaries, who then held the regency.
Mehm surrendered; those of his party
obtained their fieedom, and many other
towns yielded to him. Charles V, who, in
1964, bad succeeded his father, rewarded
in a suitable manner the services of Cues-
clin, who, in the same year, gained a victo-
ry at Cocfaerel over the king of Navarre.
These successes hast^ied the peace. He
next supported Henrv, who had assumed
the title of king of Castile, against his
brother, Peter the Cruel. He deprived
this prince of his crown, and secured it to
Heniy, who rewarded bun with a large
sum of money, and raised hfan to the dig-
nity of constable of Castile. Bertrand
soon after returned to France, to defend
his country against England. The Eng-
lish, hitherto victorious, were now every
where beaten. Advanced to the rank of
constable of France, he attacked them in
Maine and Anjou, and even made their
leader prisoner. He brought Poitou and
Saintonge under the dominion of France,
80 that the English retained only Bdi •
deaux, Calais, Cherbourg, Brest and Bay-
orme. He died in the midst of his tri-
umphs, before Chateau-neuf-de-Randon,
July IS, 1980. His body vras buried with
roval honors, near the tomb which Charles
V had desicnated for himself. France, since
him, has had among her many generals
but a single one who can be compared to
him, — ^Tureime. Both were equally brave,
modest and generous. Du Guesclin was
twice marrira, but left no children, except
a natural son, Michael du Guesclin.

GuEUX (^ff^egors). This title was, in
the time of Pnuip II, under the govern-
ment of the blood-tlurBty duke of Alba,
ffven to the allied noblemen, and the
other malcontents in the Netherlands. In
1654, Philip sent nine inquisitors there, to
execute the decrees of the council of
Trent, and occasioned thereby a great
excitement among both Protestants and
Ci^ofics. The nobles bound themselves
by a compact, known under the name of the
8*

compromuej not to appear before the nine
inquisitors, and, in solemn procession,
made known their resolution, in 1565, to
Maivaret, duchess of Panna, then at the
head of government Their declaration
was received with contempt. The prin-
cess, during the audience, happening to
show some embarrassment, me earl of
Barlaimont, president of the council of
finance, whispered' to hor that she ought
not to manifest any fear of such a mob of
beffgars [toi de gueux). Some of the con-
fecterates overheard this, and, on the even-
ing of the same day, commurucated it at a
meeting of their members, who imme-
diately drank to the health of the guettx,
and agreed thereafier to be called by that
name.

Guevara, Louis Valez delas Duenasy,
a dramadc poet, who, for his wit and hu-
mor, deserves to be called tlie AmuiwA
Scarrtm, was bom at Ecija in Andalusia,
in 1574. He aoplied himself to the study
of the law, and lived as a lawver in Ma-
drid. By tus inexhaustible funa of humor,
he oflen excited the lau^ter of his numer-
ous hearers, and of the judges, even in the
most serious causes. It is rdlated of him,
that bv this means he once saved a crim-
inal m>m death, and obtained the ac-
quaintance of the king (Philip IV). The
monarch, who knew lus talent for poetn\
induced him to write comedies. (Philip
rV himself sometimes vtrrote pieces,
which were eiven to Guevara to revise,
and afterwaroB often exhibited at courL)
In this new career Guevara obtained no
small success. His i>iece8 deserve, for
tlieir excellent delineations of character,
and their richness in strokes of genuine
comic humor, the praise which Lope de
Vepi has given them. That, however,
which especially established the poetical
fame of Guevara, was his Diablo Cojudo,
MennoricH de la otra Vidoy a romance
written with equal elegance and wit ; in
which the poet descries with great hu-
mor and spirit, and loshes with inimitable
satire, the matmerBof his countrymen
and Ufe in Madrid. This Spanish ro-
mance afforded the idea of Le Sage's fa- ^
mous DiMe Botteux. It was ntendly
translated into French (bv the author of
Leduren anmaantesV and into Italian.
Guevara died at Madrid in Januaiy, 1646,
at the age of 72, to his last day enjoying
the favor of the monarch, and to his last
day a warm, and often extravagant ad-
mirer of the other sex. Many of his witty
sayings have become &miliar to the people
in his country, and to this day are often
heard as proverbs in Spain. There are sev-

GUEVARA— GUIANA.

eial other Spanish poets of the same
name.

GuGLiELHi, Peter, was bom in 1727, at
Massa Carrara, where his father, Giacomo
Guffliehni was chapel-master of the duke
of Modena. He studied music with his
&ther until his Mshteenth year, and af-
terwards went to mples to the .conser\'a-
torio di Loretto, then under the direction
of the celebrated Durante. Guglielmi
showed httle taste for music, but Durante
kept him to the study of counterpoint and
of composition. He left the institution in
his twenty-eighth year, and immediately
began to compose comic and heroic ope-
ras for the Italian theatre. In each he
was equally successful. He was invited
to Vienna, to Madrid, and to London, and
returned to Naples about the fiftieth year
of his age. Here he made a roost brilliant
display of his talents. Two masters,
Cimarosa and Paesiello had taken pos-
session of the great theatre in Naples, and
contended for the palm. He took a noble
revenge upon the mtter, of whom he had
some cause to complain. 'To every work
of his adversary he opposed another, and
was always victorious. In 1793, Pius VI
named lum chapel-master of St. Peter's,
which gave him an opportunity of dis-
tinguislung himself in sacred music. He
has left more than 200 pieces, remarkable
for their simple and beautiful airs, for their
clear and ncli harmony, and for their
spirit and originally. He died in 1804,
in his 77th yew. His son, Peter Charles,
is likewise a distinguished composer.

GniAivA ; a country of South America.
This name was formeriy given to the
country extending ftom the Orinoco on
the north to the Amazon on the south ;
but the part called Spanish Guiana now
forms a province of Colombia, and Porta-
gutse (Swana now belongs to Brazil. The
rest of the coimtry belongs to the Blng-
lish, Dutch and French. English Guiana
contains three small colonies, viz. Esse-
quibo, Demerara and Berbice. The prin-
cipal town is Stabroek. Dutch Guiana,
often called Sitrinam, is watered by the
river Surinam. Parimaribo, the capital,
* is a pleasant town. French Guiana,
called also Cayenne, is noted for pro-
ducing the Cayenne pepper. Cayenne,
the capital, is situated on an island. Gui-
ana is of a mild climate for a tropical
country. Along the sea-shore, and ft>r a
considerable way into the interior, the
country is an extensive and uniform plain
of unequalled fertility. In the intejrior, it
rises into mountains, which frequently
contain a great variety of mineral sul!-

stances. Rich and fertile valleys are in-
terspersed throughout these mountainous
tracts. These uncultivated parts are cov-
ered witli immense forests, which are in-
tersected with deep marshes, and by ex-
tensive savannas or plains covered with
luxuriant herbage. The country is water-
ed by the tributary streams of the Ori-
noco and the Amazon. Guiana i» over-
risd with the most luxuriant vegetation,
unding in the finest woods, in fruits of
every description, and in an infinite variety
of both rare and useful plants. Many of
the trees ^w to the hei^it of 100 reet ;
they consist of every variety, of such as
are valuable for their hardness and dura-
bility, as well as of others, which are
richly veined, capable of taking the finest
polish, and well adapted for all sorts of
ornamental furniture ; while otliers yield
valuable dyes, or exude balsamic and
medicinal oils. The fitut trees are in
great variety, and the fruits they yield are
of the most exquisite deUcacy and flavor.
Wild animals and beasts of prey are
abundant These are the jaguar, which
is a powerful and ferocious anirrial. ; the
coug^, or red tiser, resembling a grey-
hound in shape, but larger in size ;. tlie
tiger cat ; the crabbodago, not much larger
than a conmion cat, and exceedingly
ferocious ; the coatimondi, or Braziliaii
weasel ; the ffreat ant-bear ; the porcu-
pine ; the hedgehog ; the armadillo ; the
sloth ; the opossum of difterent kinds ;
the deer ; the hog ; the agouti ; the liz-
ard ; the chameleon. In the rivers are to
be found the alligator ; the tapir, resem-
bling the hippopotamus of the old conti-
nent, but of^much smaller size, not being
larger than a small ass, but much more
clumsy ; the manati, or sea-cow, about
16 feet in length ; the paca, or spotted
cony ; and the pipa, a fiideous and de-
formed animal Of the serpent tribe
there are various species, from the large
aboma snake, which grows to the lengtli
of 20 and 30 feet, to Uiose of the smallest
size. The woods of Guiana are filled
with every variety of tlie feathered spe-
cies, many of which, there is reason to
believe, are but imperfecdy known to nat-
uralists. Those most commonly seen are
the crested eagle, a verj"- fierce bird, and
very strong ; the vulture ; the owl ; the
black and white butcher-bird ; parrots of
different kinds, and of the most brilliant
pluma^ ; the toucan ; the pelican ; the
tiger-bml ; herons of difterent kinds ; the
flamingo ; the humminf-bird of various
species ; tlie plover ; the woodpecker ;
the mocking-bird. The vanqpire bat is also

GUIANA— GUICCIARDINI.

found in Guiana, and grows to an enor-
mous rize, measuring about 32^ inches
between the tips of the two wings. It
sacks the blood of men and cattle when
they are fast asleep. After it is full, it
disgorges the blood, and begins to suck
msAif untQ it reduces the sufferer to a
state of great weakness. The riyers of
Guiana abound with fish, many of which
are highly prized by the inhabitants ; and,
owing to the heat and moisture of the
climate, insects and reptiles of all sorts
are produced in such abundance, that the
annoyance from this source is inconceiva-
ble. These insects are fli^ ants, mos-
quitoes, cockroaches, lizards, jack-fif«n-
iards, a larve species of wasp, fire-flies,
centipedes, &c. The native inhabitants
of Guiana are continually recedinff from
the districts which are occupied ny the
EiuropMeans. They chiefly conast of the
following tribes, viz., the Ccuribbees, the
WorrowS, the Accawaws, the Arrowauks.
From the earliest period, the Dutch colo-
nies in Guiana have been exposed to dep-
redations from fugitive Negroes, who, at
difier^t periods, have been driven, by the
crael^ of their masteis, to take refuge in
the woods. At one time, the colony was
threatened with destinction from these
bands of deserter slaves. As the Euro-
pean troops who were sent against this
enemy generally fell a prey to the climate,
a corpB of manumitted Negroes was farm-
ed, bv whom the slaves were pursued
into the woods ; and the colony has been
since fineed from this sotwce of annoyance.
GuiBERT, Jaeques-Antoine-Hippolite,
count o^ was boni at Montauban in 1743,
educated at Paris, and accompanied his
fither to Germany, during the seven
years' war, at the age of 13. In the batde
of BeUing^usen, in 1761, finding that the
ordeiB which he carried were render-
ed unseasonable by a change of circum-
siBiioes, he had the boldness to alter them,
and adapt them to the existing state of
afifaiis. In the Corsican war in 1766, he
obtained the cross of St Louis, and soon
after, with the rank of colonel, the chief
command of the newly-levied Corsican
lepon. He employed his leisure hours
in fiteivy occupations, and his Am g^-
nhtdde TaeHque, prMdi (rwiDucoursntr
rftai de la PoliHque d dela Science mUi-
taire en Eunpe (Londmi, 1772), probably
written during the German campeinis,
attracted the more attention, as at mat
time areform was going on in almost all the
annies. He afterwards travelled for mili-
tary ptnrposes throuffh Germany. His
journal, JwmaliPun Voyage en,memagne.

faU en 1773, OuwageposOiume de Owbtrt^
pMU par »a Veuve, et prkidi tPune MtHce
histonque surla Viede PAutettr^par Tbu-
longeoHj auec Figures (1803), was but a
mere sketch for the authors use, but is
interestuig for its descriptions and anec-
dotes of celebrated men, especially of
Frederic II, whose great character Guibert
passionately admired. His tragedies have
not retained their place upon the stage.
In 1779 appeared his Difense du Systhnc
de Guerre modeme,, In 1786, he became
a member of the French academy. In
1787, he wrote his famous eulo^ on
Frederic II, one of the most splendid
monuments ever raised to the memory of
diis great king. Gulbert's eulogies, among
which are one upon Thomas, imd another
upon l'£n)inasBe, are among his most fin-
ished works. Vigor, ftncy, cTeamess, and a
certain ardessness, engage the reader, and
cause him to excuse many instances of
neffligence. Guibert was a field-marshal,
and member of the council of war— an of-
fice which gave him much trouble. He-
died in 179^ in the 47th year of his age.
He was distinguished for ambition and for
activity of spuit.

GnicciARDiNT, Francis, a celebrated
historian, was bom March 6> 1482, at Flor-
ence, where his family was of distin-
guished rank. He obtained so great a
reputation as a jinist, that in his 23d vear
he was chosen professor of law, and, al-
though he had not yet reached the lawful
age, was appointed ambassador to the
court of rerdinand the Catholic, of
Spain. When Florence (1512) had lost
her liberty thitiugh the usurpation of tlie
Medici, he entered the service of that
famify, which soon availed themselves of
his talentSb He was invited by Leo X to
his court, and intrusted with the govern-
ment of Modena and Reggio. This office
he discharaed also under Adrian VI, to
the general satisfaction ; and afterwards,
when Clement VII (de' Medici) ascended
the papal chair, Guicciardini was sent, as
luogotenente of the pope, to Romagna, then
torn by the fhctions of the Guelfs and
Gibelines, and mfested by robbers, where,
by a severe and upright administration of
justice, he soon succeeded in restoring
tranquillity. He also contributed here in
other ways to the public good, by construct-
ing roads, by erecting public buildings, and
by founding usefuf institutions. Having
been appointed Heutenant-^neral of the
pope, he defended Parma with great valor,
when besieged by the French (at least he
savs SOU! his own history; An^li, author
of'^a history of Parma, accuses him, on the

GUICCLVRDINI— OUroO.

contraiy, of great eowardicc). At a later
period, aAN- the death of Giovanni de'
Medici, Guicciardini was invited by the
Florentines to succeed him in the com-
mand of the fiimous bande nere ; but the
pope still claimed his services for a time.
Having quelled an insurrection in Bologna,
he returned, in spite of the instances of
the holy father, to his native city, where, in
1534, he began his great worit, on the Histo-
ly of Italy, which 1^ since been repeatedly
published, and has obtained for hrni great
reputation. It extends irom 1490 to 1534.
In his retirement he was not without in-
fluence on state afiairs, and liis counsels
often restrained the prodigality and the am-
bhion of Alessandro de' Medici, who e»-
teemed him very highly, as did likewise
ChariesV, whose interests he had promot-
ed in his negotiations at Naples, and who,
when his courtiers once complained that
he preferred the Florentines to them, an-
swered, *^ I can make a hundred Spanish
grandees in^a minute, but I cannot make
one Guicciardini in a hundred years.**
When Alessandro de* Medici was mur-
dered by one of his relations (Lorenzino,
1536), and the Florentines, under the di-
rection of cardinal Cibo, wished to restore
the republican constitution, Guicciardini
opposed it with all his power, and main-
tained that to preserve the state firom be-
coming the prey of foreigners or of ftctions,
the monarcldcal form of government ought
to be retained. His eloquence and the
force of his ai|;uments triumphed, and
Cosmo de* Medici was proclaimed ^^nmd-
duke of Florence. Guicciardini died in
1540, and, according to his own directions,
was buried, without pomp, in the church
Santa Fehcita in Florence. It is related of
him,that his love for study was so great,that,
like Leibnitz, he often passed two or three
da3rs without rest or food. One of his
woiks, which was afterwards trandated
into FVench, his Advice on political Sub-
jects, was published in 1SS25, at Antwerp.
The FlorentiDe J. B. AdrianHwho died
1579), in his btoria 6/i tuoi Teinpt (new
edition, 1823), which may be regarded as
a continuation of the work of Guicciar-
dini, has ffiven a good narretiye of events
between 1536and 1574. This work was
first published after the death of the au-
thor in 158a The reader of Guicciardku
is sometimes offended by a want of meth-
od. A more impcHtant defect, however,
is, that ins statements cannot always be
depended on as derived fiom the best
sources, so that he must be read with cau-
tion. One of the best criticisms on Guic-
ciardini ii contained in Leopold Ranke's

Zur BnHkneutrerCk$diiiMidireOter{L^p'
sic and Ber^ 1824). Guicciardini has
often been called the Balian PobfbmB.
Of the 5K) books of his history, the 4 last
are unfinished, and are to be considered
only as rou^h drafte. He is much too
prolix, and the satirist Boccalini, in
his Raggtta^i di Panuuo, makes a Spar-
tan, who has been condemned to read
Guicciardini for having used three words
when he could have expressed his mean-
ing in two, faint away at the first sen-
tence. Guicciardini also wrote poems.
In the beginnmf^ of a poetical ej^e* en-
titled SimlicasBumt (TRalia <d Crigtianu-
sirno jRe Franeuco Primo, he expresses the
feeling so commonly exhibited by Italian
writers, ever since the time of Dante, in re-,
gard to the distracted state of tlieir coun-
tiy. The epistle begins thus : —

Aalia afflUtaf nuda e mi$erandaj

CV or dt? prineipi suoi stanca si lagna,

A Ttf FnmcescOf questa carta manda.

Guides ; in some armies, persons par-
ticularly acquainted with the ground, who
serve in the staff, to give the necessaxy
infonuation, and point out the best route
for an army. As it is, however, impossi-
ble always to have officers of this kind,
some annies have geographical engineers
attached to the staff, whose particu-
lar sljidies are geography and topo^-
phy. Napoleon gave the name of rttufes
to his first body of guards, formed after
he had been cm the pouxt of being sur-
prised and taken prisoner in a castte oq
the Mincio («ee his awn oeoounf, LasCases^
Mhnoritd, &c voL ii, p. 3, ed. of 1624.)
GiTiso Abstiho. (See Aretino.)
GiriDO Rsin ; the most charming and
grac^l painter whom Italy ever produc-
ed. His ftmily name was Rem, but he is
always called Ckddo, In ftct, many of
the old masters are best known by their
Christian names. He was bom at Bo-
logna, in 1575. His fiofaer, Samuel Reni,
an excellent musician, at first intended
that his SOB should devote himself to mu-
sic, for vdiieh he siiowedsome talent; but
he soon discovered in die boyagrealer ge-
nius ftnr painting, and had him iostruotod
by the Dutch artist IMonysius Calvaert
(q. v.), who was then in ni|^ repute at
Bolofina. In this cdebraled school, Guido
is said to have studied chiefly the works
of Albert D(irer. This becomes probable
if wc consider some of lus earher works*
in which, particulaily in the drapery, oc-
casional resemblance may be traced to
the style of Albert D&rer. In the meaa
time, the school of the Caracci, at Bok>gna»
on account of its novelty and superior

OUTDO.

taste, b^gan to eclipse the fonner, and
Guido joined it ia iiis IXHh year. He
soon save his teachers occasnon to admire
his talisnts, and is even said to have excit-
ed the jealousy of Annibal Carecci. Gui-
do's desire to behold the treasures of art
in Rome, induced him to visit that city,
with two of his fellow students, Domeni-
chino and Alhani. There he saw some
of the paintings of Caravaggio, who was
gready admired for his powerful and ex-
pressive (though often coaise and low)
manner, which Guido imitated. His rep-
utatioD soon mead, and cardinal Bor-
^lese employed him to paint a crucifixion
of St. Peter for the church DeUe Tre
Fontane. The powerful manner of this
picture, and several others of the same
period, which Guido did not, however,
long retain, increased his ftme; and
when, at the cardinal's request he com-
pleted the Aurora, so beautifuliy engraved
by Moi^hen, the admiration was univer-
sal. Paul V, at that time, employed htm
to CTobellish a chapel on Monte Cavallo,
with scenes from the Tde of the virgin
Maiy. Guido accomplished this work to
the satisfiiction of the pope, and tvas next
intrusted with the painting of another
chapel in Santa-Maria-Maggiore. These
wons were followed by so many orders,
that he was unable to execute Uiem all.
To this period lus Fortuna, and the por-
tndtB of Sixtus V and cardinal Spada, may
be assigned. Guido's paintings are sen-
eially considered as belonging to three
dtfl^nt manners and peri^. The first
compriseB those pictures which resemble
the maimer of the Caracci, and particu-
larly that of Caravag»o. Deep shades,
narrow and powerfid ngbts, strong color-
ing, in short, an effort after great effect,
itiBdnguish his works of this first period.
The second manner is completely oppos-
ed to the first, and was adopted by Guido
himself as a contrast to the works of Ca-
nvaggio, with whom he was in constant
controversjr. Its principal features are
light colonng, litde shade, an agreeable,
though oflen superficial treatment of the
subject. It is quite peculiar to Guido.
His Aurora forms the transition fiiom the
first to the second style of his paintings.
A third period commences at the time
when Guido worked with too much haste
to finish his pieces, and was more intent
upon the profits of his labot' than upon its
fiune. It may >be distinsuished by a
greeMikii gray, and altogemer unnatural
coloring, and by a general carelessness
and weakness. This last manner is par-
liculariy rema]kable,in the large standard,

with the patron ssint of Bologna, aid
more or less in a number of other paint-
ings of that period. During the govern-
ment of pope Urban VIII, Qaido quarrel-
led with nis treasurer, cardinal Spinola, re-
specting the price of a picture, and re-
turned to Bologna. There he had already
executed his St. Peter and Paul for the
liouse Zampiere, and the Murder of the
Innocents for the Dominican church, and
was on the point of embeUishing the chapvl
of the saint with his pictures, when he
was called back to Rome, loaded with
honors, and received by the pope himself
in the most gracious manner. But he
soon experienced new difSculties, and ac-
cepted an invitation to go to Naples. Be^
lieving himself unsafe at this place, on
account of the hatred of the Neapolitan
artists agamst foreign painters, he returned
once m<N« to his native city, never to quit it
asain. At Bologna, he fiiushed the chapel
above mentioned, painted two beautiful jnc-
tures for the church Dei Mendicanti, an As-
cension of Mary for Genoa, and a number
of otheis for his native city and other places,
paiticulariy for Rome. While in Home,
Guido had established a school. In Bo^
logna, the number of his pupils amounted
to 200. He now worked mostly in haste,
accustomed himself to an unfinished, af-
fected style, became Bei^ligent, had many
things executed by hb pupils, and sold
them, after having retouched them, as his
own works ; and all this merely to satis-

ghis unfertunate passion for gambling,
e often sold his paintings at any price,
and became involved in pecuniary embar-
rassments, which were the cause of his
death, in 164S. If we analyze Guido's
productions, we find his drawing not al-
ways correct, rarely powerful and grand,
his attitudes without much selection,
sometimes not even natural. Yet his
drawing has a grace peculiar to him, a
loveliness consisting rather in the treat-
ment of the whole, than in the execution
of the parts. This pace and loveliness
are ofl^ to be found only in his heads.
His ideas are generally common, the dis-
tribution of the whole rarely good ; hence
his larger works have not a pleasing effect,
and are not so much valued as his smaller
works, particularly his half-lengths, of
which he painted a great number. The
disposition of his drapery is generaUy
ea^ and beautiful, but often not in har-
mony with the whole piece, and with the
nature of the substance which it is intend-
ed to represent. An elevated, varied, dis-
tinct expression is not to be looked for in
his works. For this reason, he rarely

GUIDO-CMILD.

racoeeded m adult male figurefl^ in which
power and fimmesB are to lie represented.
The best are from his early penod. But
Quido's element was the representing <yf
youthful, and paiticulaiiy female figiuea.
In them he manifested his fine insdnct
fix the deBcate, graceful, charming, ten-
der and lovely. This is shown particular-
ly in his eyes, turned towards heaven, in
his Madonnas and Magdalene. His col-
oring is rarely true, often fidls into yellow-
ish, greenish and ^ver gray, yet is gener-
ally agreeaUe, and proves the very great
ease and power with which he managed
his pencil, which, however, often degener*
atee into mannerism. Guido not only work-
ed in relievo,bnt also executed some statues,
and a considerable number of etchings,
with his own hand, which exhibit ease
and delicacy, and are much esteemed.
It might almost be said, that his dmwing,
in these engravings, is more conect and
noble than even in his paintings. Amonf
the number of his pupils, who remained
more or less ftithful to his style, are ctistin-
guiahed, Guido Congian,8imone Contari-
ni Pesarese, Francesco Ricchi, Andr. Stre-
ni, Giovanni Sementi, G. Bat. BologninL

Guixinfz. (See AquUttmOj and Dqwi-
meiU.)

GniONEs, Joseph de, bom at Pontoise,
in 1721, is distinguished for lus knomdedgo
of the Oriental Tanffuages, which he stud-
ied under the celetnated Stephen Four-
mont He was a^^inted roj^d interpret-
er in 1745, and, m 1753, was chosen a
member <^ the academy of belles-lettres.
He applied himself particularly to the
study of the Chinese characters; and,
comparing tiiem with those of the ancient
languages, he thought he liad discovered
that Ihtff were a kind of monograms,
formed from three Phasnician letleri, and
therefore concluded that China must have
been peopled by an Egyptian colony.
The Ji/urnd des SaoanSf and the Memoirs
of the Academy, he enriched, during the
space of 35 years, with a great number
of contributions, which display profound
learning, great sagacity, and many new
views. At the age ofnear 80, he was reduc-
ed to povertjr by the revolution ; but, even
in this situation, he retained his equanimi-
^,his disinterestedness and his indepen-
dence, which would not allow him to re-
ceive Bupp<Ht from any one. He died at
Paris, in 1800. Among his numerous
worics, the first place belongs to his JEKt-
toire QMraU du Hmu, des Turca, du
Mogols d des tsutrta TakartB Occidtniaux
(five volumes, 4to.}. Id this work, the
materials for which he had drevm fix>m

valuable, and, in part, untouched- stores of
Eastem knowledge, to which he had gain-
ed access by a profound study of the lan-
guages, much lisfat is thrown upon the
history of the caliphates, of the cnisadea,
and,general]y, of the Eastern nations. Aa
regards industry, he has given us no cause
to ccanplain; but we often feel the want
of a carefiil style, of a nice taste and a
just discrimination. The language 6*6-
quently shows maiioB of neglecL A bet-
ter taste would have given a more power-
fill translation of the peculiar Oriental
expressions. He needed a more phik>-
sophic mind to understand ftdly the poe-
try of the East, to lay open the causes of
events, to point out the most striking cir-
cumstances, which he has often slightly
passed over. De Guignes,]ike Herbelot,
drew fitnn a large number of manu-
scripts, and, like him, often fiills into rep-
etitions and sometimes contradictioDs.
His Mimmart dan» Uqud onprowe que les
Ckmois mmt une Cotonie EgjffAiame is of
value. TrandationB of the CSbotc
(by fiither Gaufail), one of the sa-
books of the Chinese, and of the
Military Art among the Chinese (by Arny-
ot), were revised and pubGahed by De
Guignes, besides other pieces, and S3 pa-
pers in the Memoirs of the Academy, and
contributions to the MUees H ExtndU dt
la BibUothique royole. His son Christian,
bom in 1759, was likewise skilied in the
Chinese language and literature, and
wrote several diasertations upon them.
His Chinese dictionary, with the definitions
in French and Latin, is a masterpiece of
typography, and is generally esteoned.

Guild; a society, fintemity, or com-
pany, associated for carrying on com-
merce, or some particular tnde. The
merehant guilds of our ancestors answer
to our mcNdem corporations. The socie-
ties of tradesmen, exclusively authorized
to practise their art, end governed by the
laws of their constitution, played a very
important part in the middle ages. Few
institutions show the progress of civili-
zation ID a stronger light than that of
guilds, from the met rude mixture of all
kinds of labor, its division, the establish-
ment of corporations, the corruption of
these b^ privileges, which are m some
cases highly abmird, down to their total
abolition, and the restonifion of liberty to
human industry. Though the division of
labor is comparatively of recent date, yet
the division of the people by occupations
is one of the oldest and rudest political
institutions of which history makes men-
tion. These divisions by occupations or

GUIU>.

(q. T.)^ fleneimll^ took thtfir rise, how-
ever, mra a iufierenoe of national origuiyas
with tbeEgyptiana, Indiana, &c. TheRo-
mans had various meehanical fiatemitiea
(coBegia et corpora op^icmn) which might
oe con^Mired to modem guilds, as they
had the right to enact by-laws. In the
later times of the republic, these societies
not unfirequently appeared as political
parties; and, on this account, their ii^u-
ence was restrained, and they were paitly
abolished afler the establishment of the
monazchy. In Italy, the cradle of the
elasB of free citizens in the middle ages,
and particularly in the Lombard cities,
those Goimecting links between the an-
cient and modem civilization, some re-
mains of these Roman institutiona, or rec-
oileetions of them, probably contributed
to revive the guilds, which naturally pre-
sented themselves as an excellent means
of suppofting the citizens against the no-
bility, by unithig them into powerful bod-
ies. With the increasing importance of
the cities, which became the seats of
industry, and with tiie establishment of
their constitutions, begins also the exfien-
aioQ of guUds. The chief reason that
mechanical industry was freely developed
in the middle ages, at the same time
with agricultural, which had been ex-
clusively cultivated by the Oreeks and
Romans, was the independence which the
mechanics acquired with the mvirth of
municipal and civil liberty. Mechanical
industry has always been essentially of a
denoocratic character^ and would never
have flourished under the feudal system.
It is not possible now to give the exact
date of the oriipn of these societies in
Upper Italy. iSaces of them are found
in the 10th century. Thus, in Milan, we
find the mechanics united under the
nsme crtdenHa. It is certain that small
societies of mechanics existed as eariy as
the IStli century, which appear, in the
ibOowiiig ceiitury, to have oeen in the

We even meet with abuses in these bod-
ies as eariy as this period ; and, several cen-
turies later, the guilds became the subject
of bitter and just c<Hariplaint, particularly
thoee in German]^ « When the advantages
of these associations became known and
feh, they rapidly increased; and, in the
stn^gles of the citizens and the nobility,
the principal reastance against the latter
was made by the corporations. As soon
as the citizens acquired an influence on
the administration, die guilds became the
baaia of the mumcmal constitutions, and
eraiy one, who vrisbed to participate in

the municipal govemmKtt, was oblund'to
become the member of a guild. &»Bee
we find so often distinguished pe^le be-
longing to a dasB of mechanics, ofwhose
occupation they probably did not know any
thing. This mixture ofsodal and political
character, as well as the insignifiGance of
the individual, considered merely as such,
is a natural consequ^ice of the rti^ness
of the period. Just principles are the
work of time. It is only by slow deoees
that the true is separated finom the felse,
the essential finm the unessential Politi-
cal, like religious and scientific principles,
are at first always vague and incoherent
Men must have long e^qperieoce of the
concrete before they farm just notions of
the abstract Thus it is a characteristic
of the middle ages, that political n^ta
were considered as arising fifom roecial
privileges. All that men eiQoyed was
looked upcm as a gift fimn the lord para-
mount In fiict, the idea of the rights of
man, as an individual, has been developed
only in very recent times. Even the an-
cient republics had no just conception of
it In Germany, the esUibhshment of
guilds was also intinuttely connected with
that of the constitutions of the cities, (q. v.)
The latter were different according as the
ancient Roman, or the old German organ-
ization of the community prevailed ; the
relations among the mechuiics were also
very differrat The mechanical arts
were at first chiefly practised bv the vil-
leins ; and, even in tne time of Charle-
magne, they appear to have been pursued
on the estates of the feudal lords, by the
bondsmen, as is still the case on the great
possessions of Russian noblemen. Com-
merce could not, however, be carried on by
bondsmen (in Rusna they are permitted to
trade). Although there earlv existed five
mechanics, yet they were also under the
protection and jurisdiction of the feudal
lord, before the privileges of the cities
were acknowledged, except in cities of
Roman orisin (for instance, Cologne).
These privikges early secured to them,
as a distinct cuss of vassals, a sort of or-
ganization under the direction of the
masters of each trade, as appears fit)m the
oldest law of the city of Strasburg, which
seems to belong to me 15th century ; and
out of this the ffuilds in Germany may
have originated. (See Ekhhom^s Deutsche
StaaU- wnd BechUguekichie^ vol ii ; and
his JVeaHfc on ike Ongm of Hu ConditU'
Uona of German Cities^ in the ZeUschri/l
flirGe$(hickaiehe Rechiswiuenahdufi, vol i.
No. 2, and vol. ii. No. 2 ; and Hiuhnarm's
GesckidUe des Ursprunga der Sl&dU in

GUILD-^UILTORD.

DeuUMmd.) The full developement of
the guilds iu Gennapy fiills in the last
half of the 12th centuiy, and the oldest
examples are thoee of the cloth-shearefs
and retailers in Hambul:^ (H^)* the dra-
pere (1153) and ^oemakers in Magde-
buiv ( 1157), But they possessed no politi-
cal importance in Germany before the Idth
centuiy, when a struggle arose between
diem (the laboring dasees) and the citizens
belonging to ancient famihes, the civic oris-
' tocracy. The guilds were victorious, and
became so powerful, that even persons of
''free occupations" joined these associa-
tions, as the allodial possessors of land
sometimes placed themselves under feudal
lords. The corporations of merchants and
mechanks became more and more con-
firmed in their privileges and monopolies,
whilst die countiy people sufiered by be-
ing made, in many respects, the skives of
the guilds. Particular branches of indus-
try were often subject to restrictions in
fi&vor of the guilds, which were sometimes
of a most offensive nature. The guilds
became insupportable aristocracies, some-
times allowing onW a certain number of
master mechimics m the place, and sel-
dom admitting an^ one into their associa-
tions except favontes of the masters. The
examinations for the admission of a jour-
neyman to the rank of a master were
used as means of extorting money, and
^vere often combined with the most ab-
surd humiliations. In some parts of Ger-
many, there were from four to five differ-
ent guilds of smiths, which did not allow
each other the use of certain tools. The
ffuilds are now abolished in a considera-
ble portion of Germany ; and yet many
persons wish to restore the ancient order
of thin^is, as a support of aristocrotical
distinctions, and as tending to repress that
free exercise of industiy which is so &-
vorable to the growth of the democratic
spirit. Attempts were made to check the
insolence of the ffuilds by laws of die
empire, as in 1731, out without success. In
France, the guilds also originated with
the increasing importance of cities, and
became general in the reign of Louis IX ;
but they became subject to ^uses, as in
Germany, and were abolished at the time
of the revolution. Their restoration was
also desired by those who vrished for the
return of the Bourbons. In Enj^land, the
societies of mechanics are important
principally in a political respect, on ac-
coimt of their connexion with the demo-
cratic element of the constitution. These
societies originated in England, as on the
continent, at die time of the developemmt

of the importance of the cities. In the
towns where they still exist, they have an
important influence in the election of rep-
resentatives, and in the municipal admin-
istraticm. Therights of a ''freeman," with
which is associated the privilege of voting
in the cities or borougpbs, are often con-
fined to the members of these societies, of
which the membership is obtained by
serving an apprenticeship, or by purchase.
As the principal privilege of these socie-
ties consists m this right of voting, per-
sons not mechanics are fi«quendy admit-
ted members, to jrive them this privilege.
These guilds, in England, have no right to
prevent any man from exercising what
trade he pleases. The only restriction on
the exercise of trades is the statute of
Elizabeth, requiring seven years* appren-
ticeship. This the courts have held to
extend to such trades only as were in
being at the time of the passage of the
statute; and they consider seven years'
labor, either as master or apprentice, as
an apprenticeship.

Guilder. (See Coins.)

Guildhall ; the city hall of London.
It was first built in 1411, but almost entire-
ly coiiFiimed in the great fire. In 1669, it
was rebuilt The firont vras not erected until
1789. The most remarkable room of diis
edifice is the ha]l,153 feet long, 48 broad,and
55 high, capable of containing from 6000 to
7000 persons, and used for city feasts, the
election of membera of paiiiament and
city officers, and for all public meetuigs
of the livery and fi^eemen. Monuments,
erected at the expense of the city, to die
memory of lord Nelson, William Pitt
eari of Chatham, William Pitt his son,
and Beckfbrd, lord mayor in 1763 and
1770, whose celebrated reply to his maj-
esty George III is engraved beneath, or-
nament this halL In another room, that
of the common council, is a coUection of
pictures, some of great merit; among
others, Copley's Destruction of the Span-
ish and French Flotilla before Gibraltar,
and T^nmy portraits of distmguished per-
sons. The dinner which was given here,
in 1815, by the city of London, to the em-
peror Alexander of Russia and other
monarchs, cost £20,000.

Guilford ; a post-town and seaport in
New Haven county, Connecticut, on
Long Island sound ; 15 miles east New
Haven, 96 miles south Hartford ; Ion. 72^
42^ W.; lat 41° 17' N.; population, in
1820, 4131. (For the population m 1830,
see U, States.) It comprises four perish-
es, and contams seven houses of public
wcNTship. It has two harbors, and carries

ClfUILFORD^-OUILLOTIN.

on conaderabje tnde^ dudfy with New
York. SboemakiDg is a conmdenible
bmineaes and ]ai)ge quantitiee of oyBtera
are obtained here. The borough was in-
corpoiated in 1815, and is pleasantly situ-
ated about two miles {h>m tlie harbor.
The Indian name of GuiUbid was Mt-
nunkatuck,

GciLJLEMiNOT, Armaud Charles, coimt,
lieutenant-general, created (leer of France
October, 1823, was bom in the Bek^c
provinces, in 1774, and received a careful
education. During the insurrection of
Brebant against Austria, in 1790, he
fbu^t in die ranks of the patriots. On
then- subjection by the power of the
house of Hapsburg, he fled to France,
where he received a place in the staff of
geneml Dumouriez. Beinff imprisoned
in Lille, after the defection of this general,
he escaped by flight, and concealed him-
self in the ranks of the French army.
He was soon received into the stafl* of
general Moreau, to whom he remained
gratefully attached, even in his misfbr-
tunes. In the year 1805, Napoleon em-
ployed him in the army in Gennany, and,
in 1806, uipointed bun his aid-de-camp.
In 1806, he served in Spain, as chief of
the stafT of marshal Bessif^res, and after tlie
victoiy at Medina del Rio-Secco, was made
seneial of brigade, and an officer of the
^gion of honor. In 1809, he wos em-
ployed by Napoleon on a mission to the
Persian courL He remained some time
in the East, and several months at Con-
stantinople, and received the Turkish or-
der of the crescent and the Persian onler
of the Sim. In the compaips of 1812
and 1813, he distinguished hmiself in tlie
battles of the Moskwa, of Liitzen and Baut-
zen. He rendered essential senice by re-
pelling the attack of the Swedes upon
bessau (September 28, 1813), and, in con-
sequence, was promoted by Napoleon to
the rank of general of division. Afler
the restoration, Louis XVIII named him
grand officer of the legion of honor, and
gave him the cross of St Louis; he also
appointed him, at the return of Napoleon
mm Elbe, chief of the general staff in
the army which the duke of Bern was to
ciMDcnand. He held the same rank in the
array which, in June, 1815, was aasem-
I Med under the walls of Paris ; and he

' ngned, in the name of marshal Davoust,

the capitulation of that city. Ho was af-
terwards appointed director of the topo-
graphical military bureau in the ministiy
^ of war; and, in 1816 and 1817, in con-
f junction with the commissionerB of the
Swiss confederacy, settled the boundary

VOL. VL 9

line between France and Switzeriand, aa
was stipulated by the trniQr of 1815. In
the war with Spain, in 182^ general Guil-
leminot received the important poet of
major-general in the French army, at the
express desire of the duke of Angou-
Mme, but against the will of the duke of
Belluno, then minister of war, who desir-
ed the place for himself. In this capacity,
he directed the whcde campaign, from
April 7 to the liberation of King Ferdi-
nand (October 1, 1823), who rewarded
him with his order. Guilieminot then
distributed the French armv of occupa-
tion in the fortresses, concluded a contract
with the Spanish government for its sup-
ply, &c., and returned, in the middle of
December, to Paris, where an embassy to
Constantiiiq>le was given him. General
Guilieminot, by his nroclamation, dated
Andujar (August 8, lo23), which was in-
tended to put a stop to the arbitrary treat-
ment of the constitutionalists by the Span-
idi royalists, had rendered himself obnox-
ious to the absoludsts. The duke of An-
ffouldme, however, reposed entire confi-
dence in him ; for GiuUeminot, as major-
Seneral, had executed, with great pni-
ence, the plan of reducing Spain by
moderation, of restraining the political
fanaticism of the soldiers of the faitli and
of the people ; and, by a liberal policy,
inducing the Spanish leaders, Morillo and
Ballesteros, ana the commanders of the
castles, to capitulate, and the members of
the cortea to disagree ; and had happily at-
tained the object of the six months' cam-
paign, the taking of Cadiz. In 1826, be
was permitted to return from Constanti-
nople to Paris, to defend himself before
the house of peers, in the trial of Ouvrard,
relative to die contracts for supplying the
French army in Spain. Bcmg acquitted
of any blame in the affiiir, he returned to
Constantinople in Augtist of the same
year. General Guilieminot is one of the
best informed of the French officers, and
we may expect from him a history of the
late wars. (For his conduct in the affaire
of Greece, see Greece. )

GuiLLOTiN, Joseph Ignatius, a French
physician, wqs born at Saintee, in 1738.
He was at first a Jesuit, and professor m
the Irish college at Bordeaux, but after-
words stndied medicine, and lived in Par-
is, lie was one of the commissioners
appointed to examine the pretended cures
of Mesmer, which he contributed much
to discredit. A pamphlet (in 1788J on
some abuses in tlie administration, gamed
liim ^at popularity, and caused his elec-
tion mto tno national convention. Here

GUILLOTIN--OUINEA*

he was principally occupied with intro-
ducing a better organization of the medi-
cal deportment A machine, which he
proposed should be uaed for the purpose
of capital punishment, was called, from
him, the gwUloHne,{<\,y,) He narrowly
escaped simering himselt by this instru-
ment. He died in 1814, at Paris, where
he was much esteemed as a physician.

Guillotine. This instrument has
been erroneously called an invention of
GuiUotin, a physician at Paris, durins the
French revolution, concerning wnose
character very false notions nave also
been entertained. (Su ike preceding arti-
de,) A similar instrument, called man-
noto, was used in Italy for beheading
criminals of noble binh. The motden,
formerly used in Scodand, was also con-
structed on the same principle. The con^
vention ha\dn2 determined, on die propo-
sition of Guillotin, to substitute decapita-
tion for banging, as being less ignomin-
ious for the family of the person ej^ecut-
ed, the guillotine was adopted, also on
his proposition, as bemg the least painful
mode of inflicting the punishment. It
was erected in the place de Grhe, and the
first criminal suffered by it April 25, 1792.
Portable guillotines, mode of iron, were
afterwards constructed. They were car-
ried from place to place, for the purpose
of executing sick persons. Tliis machine
consists of two upright pillars, in the
grooves of which a mass of^iron, sharpen-
ed at the lower extremity, is made to
move by cords. Being raised to a certain
height, it hWs, and at once severs the head
of Uie criminal (who is laid upon a hori-
zontal scafibkUng] from his body. It is
much surer than tne sword or axe, which
is sometimes used for decapitation, and
of which we read, in many instances, that
several blows Iiuve been necessary to put
an end to the life of tlie sufferer. In the
rei^ of terror, it was called notre tres
Sannte-GuiUoHne by the most ^nolent po-
litical fanatics. It is still the common in-
strument of capital punishment in France.

Guinea ; a name which modem Euro-
peans have apphed to a lai*ge extent of the
western coast of Africa, of which the
limits are not very definite. The Euro-
pean geographers, however, seem now to
have agreed in fixing, as the boundaries of
Guinea, the Rio Mesurado and the west-
em extremity of Benin, comprehending a
space of about 13 degrees of longitude.
This large territory is usually divid^ into
four portions, called the Grain coast, the
Ivory coasiy the Gold coaaty and the iSZoce
coast. The Grain coast, called also the

Mak^uMOf or Ptpper coasts extendi from
the Mesurado to the villure of Growa,
about ten miles beyond cape Palmas. The
aromatic plant from which this coast de-
rives its name, appeared, when Europeans
first landed on this coast, a delicious luxu-
rv. As soon, however, as they becr.me
familiar with the more delicate and exqui-
site aromatica of the East, this coarser one
fell into disrepute ; and as this coast af-
forded neither gold nor iv(»ry, and was not
fiivorable for procuring slaves, it has been
comparatively little frequented. About
ten miles to the east of cape Palmas com-
mences what by European navigators is
termed the hory coast. This name is de-
rived from the great quantity of ivoiy, or
elephants* teeth, which is brought finom the
interior countries. Gold is also tolerably
plentiful. Although the Ivory coast is th us
tolerably supplied with materials of trade,
it has never been veiy extensively fi^-
quented. The Ivory coast is populous
and thickly set with villages, but does not
contain any town of much consideration.
It reaches to cape ApoUonia. The Gold
coast extends from cape Apollonia to the
Rio Volta, which separates it fix>m the
Slave coast Of all parts of Guinea, and*
indeed, of the African coast, it is the one
where European settiements and trade
have been carried to the greatest extent.
It has been frequented at dififerent times
bv the Portuguese, the Danes, Swedes,
Iiutch and British. Britain has now a
more extensive footing upon this coast
than any other nation. She maintains a
range of forts, the expense of which is
defrayed by the African company, out of
a grant of £23,000 per annum, made by
government for that purpose ; but the
trade is thrown open to all the subjects of
the British nation. Although the Gold
coast is situated almost immediately under
the line, the tbennometcr luis scarcely
been known to rise above 93 degrees, and
tiie common heat of midsummer is only
from 85 to 90. The country, fiiom the
sea, appears like an immense forest, parts
only or which are cleared for the pur-
pose of cultivation. High lands arc seen
in various directions, crowned with lofly
trees and thick underwood ; the soil along
the coast varies fix>m a light, sandv and
pBvelly texture to a fine black mould and
foamy clay. As we advance into tlie
iiiterior, it sensibly improves, and, at the
distance of six or eight miles firom tho
shore, becomes rich in the extreme, and
fit for any species of cultivation. The
natives inhabiting the Gold coast present a
considerable variety. The most prominent

OUINEA--OUISCARD.

pbceiBlMlclbytlieFantMfl. OflMeywm»
another power, beftm afanost unknown to
EnropcMoiB, hat occupiad a oonapicuoua
place. ThiaiflAaiiMiteeftheaovereignof
which has wviged repeated and aucceaaful
wanagahMttheFMiteea. OapeCoaatCaatle
is the Gspilal of the BrWflh aettlements on the
Gold coeat; and fotta ara also maintained
at Acra, Dizeove, Soecondee, Commendo
and Anamaboe. That at Winnebah haa
beeik fiiven up. The Skve coaat extenda
from the Rio votea to the bay and river of
La^^OB, which aepomte it from Benin. Of
all the partaof native Africa yet explored
fay E nro pn a iW) thia ia the one where culti-
Tation and the ana have been carried to the
greateac petftct&on. The countiy here
waa In a moat flouriahing and proeperoua
atata, when h leoeived a fatal blow, about
the middle of kat century, by the Invaaion
of the king of Dahomey, who, having con-
quered it, reduced the principal towna to
aahea, and maaaacrad a great proportion
of the population. This coaat haa aince
coDtmiied to form part of the territoiy of
Dahomey, and la pnremed by a viceroy,
who reaidea at Qnwhee ; but, under tlua
feroeioiia and military tyranny, it haa never
reoovered ita ancient wealth and proa-
perity.

GKifinA; an Enghrii gold coin, worth
31 ahllMngi aterimg. Guineaa were first
coined, m the reign of Charlea II (1663),
of moid which the EngliA procured from
GuHMB) and hence the name. Till 1718,
they were of the value of 30 ahillinga ater-
ling. (9eeGom.)

GtmocA Cl€»tb, Mariners give the
name of Gninea to a much greater extent
of the AiHcan eoaat than ia recogniaed by
geography ; and, in commerce, aeveral
artidaa made for the African trade are
caHed by thia name. Guinea cloth ia a
lund of ealioe^ caicahted for the African
mnket, when it la an important article ci
baner. There are alao Guinea knive8,&c.

OumBA PEppsft. {Bee Onfeimt Pepper.)

GtTuntA Pie [ooois oobmfo). Thia well
known little aumal ia a native of South
America, and ia now domeaticated both
in Europe and tbia country. Aa writarB
make but little mentioti of ita halntB and
maanera in a wild atate, moat that ia
known respecting it haa been derived from
oboervationa on tbe domeaticated animaL
It is a reatleaa, grunting litde quadruped,
aeldom remaining quiet more than a few
mlniiiea. It foeda on bread, grain, ftuh or
weigtitMaif giving a decided oreierence to
pandey. It broMla when only 3 montha
old, aind generally bringa forth every 3
montha, having from 4 to 13 young onee

at a time; hence the produce of a angle
pairmightbeathouaandintheyear. From
their beinc ao prolific, they would become
innumerable, were not vast numbers of the
young eaten bv cats, killed by the malea,
or deatroyed by other meana. Aa they
are very tender, multitudea periah firom
cold and moiature. In the apace of 13
hours after birth, the young are able to
run about. In their habita, they are ao
extreme^ cleanly, that if the young, by
any accident, are dirtied, the female takea
aucb a dialike to them aa never to aufl^
them to approach her. The principal
emptoymentof the male and female aeema
to conaiat in amoothing each otherVi hur,
winch being performed, they turn their
attention to the young, whoae hair they
take particular care to keep unruffled,
biting them if they prove refractory. Their
aleep is ahort, but fiiequent ; they eat rap-
idly, like the rabbit, a little at a time, but
often. They repoae fiat on their belly,
and, like the dog, turn round aeveral timea
before they lie downJ Their manner of
fighting is very singular, and rapears ex-
tremely ridiculous. One of them seizes
the neck of bis antagonist with its teeth,
and attempts to tear the hair fitim it ; in
the mean time, the other tuma hia tail to
the enemy, kicks up like a horse, and, by
veay of retaliation, acratchea the aidea of hia
opponent with his hind feet Their skii»
are acareely of any value, and their fleah,
though edible, ia not aavoiy. fiufibn
obeervea of them, ''By nature they are
gentle and tame; thejr do no miachie^
but they are equally mcapable of good,
for they never form any attachmenta :
mild by conatitution ; docile through
weakness ; almost insensible to eveiy dis-
ject, they have the appearance of livins[
machines, constructed for the purposes of
propagation and of representing a species.**
GciscARD, Robert, duke of Apulia and
Calabria, a son of tbe celebrated Tancred
de Hauteville, was bora in 1015. Haute-
ville had many sons, and his estate in
Normandy waa amalL Thia mduced his
three ekleat aona, ViTllliam the honarma
(Bnw-<2e/cr»)» Daaobert and Humphrey
to go to Italy and offer their aeryicea to
the Italian princes, then engaged in con-
tinual wars. Fortune, courage and cun-
ning enabled William the IronarnB, who
knew bow to take advantage of the
vreaknesB of the Italian princea, to get
poaaeasion of Apulia. Robert Guiacard,
who, in the mean time, had grown up,
burned witii the deare of sharing the
splendid fortune of his brother m Italy.
A little band of adventureis waa aoon

100

QUISCABD.

found, in those timefl, so prone to adven-
turous enterprisesy who were ready to
follow him in the expectation of a rich
booty. Robert, who was no ways in-
ferior in courage to his brothera, soon
distinffuisbed lumself in many battles;
and the soldiers, moved by his exploits,
unanimously proclaimed biro, after the
death of his brother Humphrey, count of
Apulia — a dignity which he accepted
without hesitation, although to the preju-
dice of the rights of his brother's chil-
dren. He then conquered Calabria, in
the possession of wnich he was con-
firmed by pope Nicholas II, although that
pontiff had not long before exconunu-
nicated him for his outrages. Robert,
grateful ibr this fiivor, bound himself to
pay to the holy see an annual sum ;
and fix>m this the feudal claims of the
papal see on Naples, which exist to this
day, are derived. In ApuUa itself^ Guis-
card ruled with absolute power. This
country had, till his reign, preserved a
numb^ of privileges, and some fiimis
of a constitution ; but scarcely was he at
the head of the state, when he destroyed
them ; and hence naturally arose discon-
tents and conspiracies among the nobil-
ity, who, at that time, were alone in pos-
session of any rights. Robert punisbed
many of these with dealh, and reduced
the others to submission. He now began
to think of conquering Sicily, the inves-
titure of which the pope had already
promised him. He sent, therefore, h&
youngest lNX>ther, Roger, whose valor had
already been dis^yed in many battles,
at the head of 900 resolute vrarriors, to
take possession of this island. Roger
made himself master of the city of Mes-
sina, with this small band, in 1060. In
the following year, the two brothers
united conquered the Saracens on the
plains of Enna; but the misunderstand-
mg which broke out between the victors,
prevented them fh>m deriving all the
advanta^ which mi|^t have resulted
from this victory. Guiscard had prom-
ised Roger the half of Cabtbria, in case
his exi^ition to Sicily should prove
successful ; but he was now unwilbi^to
allow him more than two cities. The
complaints of Roger irritated his brother,
who deteimined to imprison him. But
the soldiers of the former made them-
selves masters of the person of Robert
himself and Roger was magnanimous
enough not to take advantage of this
success. Guiscard, touched with this
generositv, was reconciled to his brother,
and fulfilled his promise. Roger now

conquered nearly the whole of die iaiand,
and became the fint count of Sici-
ly. Ghiiscanl, in the mean time^ be-
sieged all those cities in Lower Italy
wluch, as yet, were in the hands of the
Saracens. Some of these detained him
ak>ngtime; as, for instance, Salenio and
Bari, before the latter of which places
Guiscard was encamped for four years,
and endured all the violence of the
weather and the dangen of the war, In a
miserable hut, composed of branches of
trees and covered with strew^ which he
had caused to be bulk near the walls of
the city. He at length succeeded in
conquering ail the provinces which now
form the kingdom of Napiesy and he
would have extended hm vietorioua course
still ftrther, had he not been excommiini-
cated by Gregory VII, on account of his
attack on Bensvento, and oUiged to con-
fine his ambition within these limits.
The betrothment of his daughter Helea
to Constantine Duces, die son and heir
of Michael VII, gave him afterwards an
opportunity of interforiiig in the afftirs
of the Greek empire. He fitted out a
considerdi>le fleet, and sent his son Boe-
mond to the conquest of Corfii^ while
he himself went to attack Durazze. A
tempest and a contapous disease had near-
ly finstrated this expedition. Alexis Com-
nenus, then emperor of Constantinonley
approached witn superior foiees. The
armies joined batde under the wbDs of
Durazzo, where the victory at firrt in-
clined to the side of the Greeks ; but the
courage of Guiscard gave the battle a
difierent turn. He rallied the already
flying bands of his soldien, led them
anew to die combat, and gained a com-
plete victory over forces ax times as
numerous as his own. Durazzo was
compelled to surrender. Robert pene-
trated into Epirus, approached Theasa-
lonica, and filled the cqntal with terror.
In the midst of this victorious career, he
was recalled by the infbrmalian that Hen-
ry IV (q. v.), emperor of Germany, had en-
tered Imly. He gave the command 10 Boe-
mond, and hastened home to asnst €hea-
ory VII, who was besieged in the castle
of"^ St Angelo, against &e Germans.
Henry IV was compelled to retreat;
Gregory was released, and conducted to
Salmio as a place of safeQr. Guiseard
now hastened again to Epirus, where he
repeatedlv defeated the Cireeks, and, by
means or his fleet, made himself master
of many of the islands of the Arehipel-
ago. lie was upon the point of advanc-
ing against Conaumfinople, when his

GUI8CAKD— GUISE.

101

death took ploce io the uiand of Ceph-
akmia, July 17, 1066, in the 70th year
of his age. Wb &nny refloated, and the
Graek empire wbb saved. Guiacard's
coipae was put on board a galley, which
lumiing aground at Venusa, the remains
of the TietoriotM prince were deposited in
the church of the Holy Trinity. His sons
Boemond and Roger, after much dispute,
divided the cmiquests of then- father, the
fimner receiving Thremum, and the hitter
Apuha. Robert Guiscard left behind him
tho gloiy of having protected leaminf^,
and of behig highly estimable in all his
private relations. His appearance was
martial, his ftame powerftil, and his cour-
age unbounded. The school of Salerno
ebims him as its founder.

GxTiscBARO, Charles Gk>ttlieb, an able
writer on militarv tactics, was a native of
Magdebonr. After studying at the uni-
versities of Halle, Maihurg and Lievden,
he entered into the service of HoUand,
and, while thus employed, found leisure
to prepare materials for his Mhnoina
mmtniits war Us Chtes et ks RommnSj
vrfaich appeared' in 1757 (in 2 vols., 4to.),
and met with great approbation. Tlie
same year, he entered as a volunteer into
the allied army, and acquired the esteem
of prince Feidinand of^ Brunswick, who
recommended him to the king of Prus-
sia. He was a ftivorite of Frederic the
Great A dispute having once arisen be-
tween them respecting the name of the
oonomander of Caesars tenth legion, in
which Guischard proved to be right,
Frederic gave him the name of this com-
mander (Qittnfitf IcQius), by \d)ich he
afterwards fi^quently called. Be-
i the woric already mentioned, he

the author of Mhrunrta CrUiques et

fEtburiques sw phuitun Poinis tPAnHqui'
ti miUiairt (4 vols., 8vo.), upon which
work Gibbon bestows very high enco-
mimns. Guischard died in 1775.

Ouiss ; the name of a celebrated noble
fimiiy in France, a branch of the house
of Lonaine. Claude de Guise, fifth son of
Ren^, duke of Lorraine, bom in 1496, estab-
ftihed himself in France, and married An-
tnaette de Bourbon in 1513. His valor,
luB enteipriang spirit, and his other noble
qualities, obtained for him great consid-
entkm, and end[>led him to become the
Ibunder of one of the fint houses in
Franoe. In 15Q7, for the sake of doing
him honor, his coimty of Guise was
changed to a duchy, and made a peer-
age. At his death, in 1550, he left six
HODS and ftve daughters, of whom the
Hdett married James V, king of Scot-
9»

land. The splendor of the house vras
mincipally supported hv tiie eldest son,
Guise (Francis, duke of Lorraine), bom
in 1519, and called Le BaUtfri (the scar-
red), from a wound which he received in
1545^ at the siege of Boulogne, and which
left a pennanent scar on his fiice. He
showed distinguished courage, in 1553, at
Metz, which he defended with success
against Charies V, although the emperor
had sworn that he would rather perit>h
than retreat without having eftected his
object In the battle of Renti, Aug. 13,
1554, he dispbyed remarkable intrepidity.
He also fought with success in FlanderB
and in Italy, and v^as named lieutenant-
general of all the royal troops. The star
of France began again to shme as soon cs
he was ploc^ at the head of the army.
In eight days, Calais was taken, with the
territory belonging to it, in the middle
of winter. Tliua the Enghsh lost tiie
ci^ without recovery, after having held
it 310 years. He afterwards conquered
ThionviUe fix>m the Spaniards, and provefl
that the good or ill fortune of whole
states often depends on a single man.
Under Henry A, whose sister he had
married, and stiU more under Francis 11,
he was the virtual ruler of France. The
conspiracy of Amboise, which the Prot-
estants had entered into for liis destruc-
tion, produced an entirely opposite effect.
The parliament gave him the title of
scmioT of his cowfdry. After the death
of Francis II, his power began to decline.
Then grew up the factions of Cond^ and
Guise. On the side of the latter stood the
constable of Montmorency and marshal de
St Andr6 ; on the side ofme former were
the Protestants and Colicny. The duke of
Guise, a zealous Cadiolic, and an enemy
to the Protestants, determined to pursue
them sword in hand. After having pass-
ed the borders of Champagne, at Bassi,
March 1, 15GS2, he found the Calvinists
singing tiie psalms of Marot in a bam.
His party insulted them; they came to
blows, and nearly 60 of these unhappy
people were killed, and 200 wounded.
This unexpected event lighted the flame
of civil war throughout the kinffdom.
The duke of Guise took Rouen and Bour-
ses, and won the battle of Dreux, Dec. 19,
1562. On the evening after this victoiy,
he remained, with entire confidence, in
the same tent with his prisoner, the prince
of Cond^, shared his oed with him, and
slept quiedy by the side of his rival,
whom ho rM;arded as a relation and a
ftiend. At that time, the duke of Guise
was at the height of his fortune. He

101

GULL— GUM ARABIC.

words the point, and marked below the tm>
der mandible by a triangular prominence,by
their light body, supported by larve wings,
by slender legs, palmated feet, and a small
lund toe. They are timid and cowardly,
except in defence of their young. Gene-
rally seen in large flocks, the old and
young separate ; the larger species fre-
quent the sea, the smaller, lakes or rivers.
They walk vriih tolerable ease, and - swim
%vell, but are incapable of diving. They
keep much on the wing, and their fli^t is
rapid, strong, and long sustained, even in
heavy gales. In sitting, they contract their
neck, and rest on one foot They are ex-
tremely voracious, fighting with each other
for prey. They are patient of hunger,
but will feed on every kmd of animal fw)d,
cither dead or alive, putrid or fresh. Their
principal food, however, is fish, of which
they will follow the ^oals; they catch
them with n^t ability, duting down like
an arrow. They breed only once a year,
laying fix)m two to four eggs. The spe-
cies are exceedingly numerous, and re-
semble each other greatly. The culls are
continually fiditing with each other, and
the strong pmnderinf the weaker. No
sooner does one rise from the water, with
a fish in its bill, than it is immediately pur-
sued by others, stronger than itself, and the
first that reaches it tears away the spoil.
Should, however, the latter not instantly
swallow the booty it lias acquired, it is, in
turn, pursued by otbera ; and, even if it has
perfonned this process, it is oftentimes
obliged to disgorge it, when it is seized by-
one of the pursuers, before it can reach
the water. The facility which the guUs
have of vomiting their rood has been \Sken
notice ofj even in their captive state. Some
of these birds have been tamed, but, even
then, they have always discovered the
same quarrelsome and voracious habits.
When two are kept together, tlie weaker
generally becomes the victim of the ill na-
ture of the other. Ahnost all the gulls
that apjpear on our coast are also inhabit-
ants of^ Europe. This genus is not well
understood by naturalists, and much con-
fbsion exists as to the species.

Gum ; one of the proximate principles of
vegetables, disdnguished by the foltowing
properties :~It is an insipid, modorous, un-
cry'stallizable solid, more or leas trampa-
rent, the various colore which the difler-
ent kinds possess being derived from
mixtiwe witn coloring principles while
exuduiff in a fluid state. It is insoluble
in alcohol, and extremely soluble in wa-
ter, in which properties it vs the reverse
of resin. It difiers from mucilage only

in being deprived of the w»ter which
rendered it fluid ; and, of eoune, when
water is added, it again becomes muci-
hige. This mucilage is apparently not
susceptible of fermentation, and may he
kept for a long tkne, as it is less dis-
posed to spontaneous changes than almost
any vegetable product Its chemical com-
position so nearly approaohes sugar, that
It may be converted mto it by means of
nitric acid. Gkim, as above defined, is
identical in all vegetables, and the differ-
ent kinds vary only in the quantity and
quafity of the substances tmited with them.
It exists naturally almost pure in gum
Arabic and gum Senegal, ana, more or less
mixed, in the gum which exudes from
Uie plum, cherry and other firuit-trees, as
also in tlie mucilage of flaxseed, slippery
ehn, &c. Various resins and sum-resinVt
are commonly confounded under tins ap-
pellation.

Gt7M Arabic is the product of the mi-
mosa itUoUca and some other species of
the same genus, inhalnting the sandy parts
of Arabia, Egnrpt, Sehegal and Central Af-
rica. It exudes spontaneously, in a fluid
state, and remains attached to the branches
after it has concreted and become solid.
This exudation takes place continually,
during the whole of the dry season, from
Octo&r to June, but more copiously im-
mediately after the rains. December and
March are the two months in which this
pim is coUected by the Arabs, with whom
it is an important aliment, those tribes that
are continually wandering in the desert
often making it their principal article of
food during a great part of the year. Gum
Arabic is obtainea in rounded masses
transparent, or of a light yellow color,
capable of being easily reduced to a pow-
der, insipid to me taste, or possessing a
slight acidity, which, however, is only per-
ceptible by those who use it habitually.
It 18 easily soluble in water, and the solu-
tion has the property of conveying pulver-
ized solids mrougfa a filter, whidi would
separate them were they suspended mere-
ly in water : thus it is unpocrible, by this
means, to separate powdered chaypcoal
fiom gum water. In pharmacy, gum Ara-
bic is employed to suspend in water sub-
stances which, otherwise, could not be
kept equally diflhsed, as balsams, fixed
oils, reans, &c.; but its principal con-
sumption is in manufiictures, forming the
bans of crayons and cakes of water-col-
ors, as well as of writing-ink, and several
liquid colors, serving to increase the con-
sistency of tliese cMors, and to prevent
their spreadiog in calico printing, awMrding

GUM ARAWC-OUNPOWDER.

105

A clear cement for jominff liglit subitaieeB
which may be prepared iu a moment,
gtvinff a luatro to libandi, silks, ^1^^
which, boweyer, is destroyed by the appli-
ealkm of water. It is, besides, used for a
great Tariety of purposes. In medicine,
it is frequently employed, especially in
dysenteriee, as a demulcient, ana enters in-
to the composition of a variety of emol-
lient preparBti(»i& Gum Senegal does not
di^r in its sensible properties ; indeed,
the chief part of the gum Arabic of com-
merce is lMt>u|^t fh>m Senegal, and con-
stitutes the most important article of
trade with that countiy.

Gum Resirs apparently combine the
properties of gums and resins, beinff part-
ly soluble in water, partly in alooluM ; but
dbey are evidoitly compound substances,
finrmed of two or more vegetable princi-
ples, which, indeed, are often in a state of
mere mechanical mixture. Aloes, ammo-
niac, aasafoBlida, galbanum, gamboge, oli-
banum, scanunony, and a great variety
of concrete juices, are referred to this
head.

GiTif; a fire-arm, or weapon of offence,
vHueh forcibly dischaiges a ball, shot, or
other offinisive matter, through a cylin-
drical barrel, by means of cunpowder.—
Gun is a seneru name, under which are
included divers, or even most species of
fiie-anna. They may be divided into
great and smalL Great guns, called, also,
by the general name eannon»j make what
we also call ordnance^ or arUOenf, under
wbikAi come the severed sorts of'^cannon.
(See Gosmon, JMlUry, &c) Great guns,
of all sorts, cannons, carronades, dz^.,
whether of iron or brass, are cast in sand,
and afterwards bored. Small guns, mus-
kets^ fbwlinir-pieces, &C., are forged from
bars of maUeable iron, hammered to a
proper width, and then turned over a
mandril, or cylindrical rod, so as to form
a tube with a bore smaller than that of the
intended piece. The edges overlap about
hidf an inch, and are finnly welded to-
gether. The tube is then hammered, in
semicireular grooves, on an anvil hoUow-
ed for the purpose. It is aflerwurds bored
with several instruments, of difierent sizes,
in succession, till the hoUow is sufficiently
large and smooth. A strong plug is firm-
ly screwed into the breech, so as to make
it perfectly close. The projecting parts
of the barrel, the flight, the loops which
ftsteo it to the stock, &c., are soldered
on.

GcN^TERT signifies the science of using
artillrr)'^ against an enemy judiciously, and
to the greatest eflect. Besides an accurate

acquaintance with themaiMgementafoid-
nance of all kinds, the ranae and force of
every kind, the cham and diraetiim ne-
cessary for dififerent distances, their mate-
rials, me manner of making and of pre-
serving them, with the component parts,
the kinds, the ftbricadon, the efilect of
pmpowder, and the method of preserving
it, with the manner of preparing and onui*
agin^ every thinjr that appertams to am-
munition, ue axtiUeriBt must be able to in-
struct his men in their exercises^ both on
honeback and on foot; he must be well
acquainted with the management of the
horses, that are used to transport the can-
non and to mount the flvingartiUeiy ; must
know how to hames them to the cannon ;
how to move and mancDuvre with them on
ground of every kind ; how to repair, at
die moment, any sudden damage ; and
must be thoroughly acquainted vrith tac-
tics, especially with the peculiarities of the
ground, and vrith the art of availing him-
self of them most iudicioaaly in the dis-
position of his artiilery. Hemust, finally,
oe able to attack or defend any position ;
he must have an aocurate acqiiaintance
with the science of fortification ; but espe-
cially he must be practically skilled in
throwing up battenes and other fiekl-
worin, so that he may be able, by dispos-
ing his artilleiy before or within a strong
place, to assist the enemeermosteflfoctual-
jy in its attack or defence. Besides^ the
artiUerist has often the reipladon of the
lichts^ and other ngnals, m time of war,
of the fire-woiks in peace, &c. All this
must be learned by experience, and by the
smdy of auxiliaiy sciences. Mathemat-
ics (particularly the doctrine of curves, to
calculate the path of the balls), physics
and chemistry are v«nr necessary, m order
to undentand the effect of ptnvder, and
the nianuftcturinff of ammumtion, as well
as that of all kmds of fire-works. A
knowledge of mechanics is, also, very
useful, for understanding the theory of
carriages, for moving la^ loads, when
necessary, and on many other oeca-
sions.

GunpowDxa is a mixture of sahpetre,
sulphur and charcod. If we may be-
lieve the relations of the misrionaries, and
the reports of the Chinese historians, the
Chinese were first acquainted with the ap-
plication of gunpowder. Perhaps it pro-
ceeded from them to the Arabs ; for» in
1331, the Moon used it in their operationa
before Alicant, and certainly in 134% at
Algesiras; in 1250, the Arabs probably
us^ a mixture similar to gunpowder be^
fore Damietta, and perhaps also in a naval

108

CRTNFOWDEIt

It in the year 1065. Amtrng
the fiuropeaoB, the traces of this inven-
tioii ore sdll mope ancient ; for the Greek
fire, which was first employed m 068,
must haye, at least, contained sahpetre
mixed with pitch, naphtha, &c^ since it
was customaiy, by means of it, to huri
stones finom m^aluc tubes. The first in-
formation of the knowledge of the Euro-
peans with regard to the chemical mix-
ture of powder, is found in the 9th centu-»
IT, in a bock composed by Marcus GtbC'
chuB, preserved in the university of Ox-
ford, which also accurately explains its
composition. Roger Bacon (who died in
12d4) was likewise aeouainted with the

Sower which saltpetre nas, when set on
re, of producing a thundering report
The discoYBrer of the power ofpowder,
when confined and set on fire, of^propd-
ling heavy bodies, was, according to com-
mon r^>oft, fintfaold Schwaitz, a monk,
who is said to have lived at Mayence, be-
tween 1290 and 12SXL He, in some of his
experiments in alchemy, had put the nux-
ture into a mortar, and, having accidental-
ly dropped into it a spaikof &«, to lus as-
tonishment, saw the pesde fly off into the
air. Other traditions attribute this inven*
tion to Constantine Antlitz of Colo^
(see De Boucher's Jtfiisiotre stir fOr^^^
delaPoudnhCanony However this may
be, powder was scansdy applied to mili-
tary uses before 1350, and the accounts of
the use of cannons in the battles of CMcy
(1346), Poictien, kmd still eariier enga|;e-
ments, have arisen fit>m the various signifi-
cations of the woid amnon. In ld5&
powder is mentioned in die accounts of
the treasuiy of Nuremburg ; in I960, the
house of assembly at Lfifa«ck wos bunied
by the imprudence of the powder manu-
fiusturen ; and, in 1965^ tfie maigreve of
Misnia had pieces of artilieiy. In the
course of a rew yetn sfbrwards, it was
knovm over all Europe. Thus the fint
traces of this invention would appear to
be found in Germany ; other naliona,
however, have put in their claims to this
honor. The proportion of the inrndi-
ents in the oonmosition of gunpowder, is
diflerent in dinerent countries: in die
Prussian powder-mills, 75 parts of saltpe-
tre, llil parts of sulphur, and 13^ ports of
charcoal are used ; but in the French
mills, 75 parts of salmetre, 12i| of coal,
and 1521 or sulphur. In the manu&eture
of this article, which is canied on in very
different ways, much depends upon the
goodness of the ingredients. The cnide
saltpetre is broken up, moistened and ex-
posed to the action or a slow fire, contin-

vtaUv skfanmed and violently agitated, till
all the moismre evaporates, and the salt-
petre remains in the form of a fine pow-
der. The sulphur is pulverized after hav-
ing been well purified. The chttcoal m
that derived from the alder or any other
soft wood or bushes, as, for example, hemp
stalks, which are burned with great care in
a confined room, and reduced to a fine
powder. These three insredients are then
moistened, brought under a stamping, or
more commonly a rolling mill, where two
metallic, or, winch are tetter, marble cyl-
inders, turn round a fixed vertical wooden
pillar, and crash to pieces the mixture,
which lies upon a round smooth sunbce
of the same materiaL Other nulls effect
this bruising operation by several law
iron rtumera, revolving upon a metalfic
plate, aniilar to a painter's grinding stone,
or by a rapid revolution of the mixture in
cssks containing metallic balls. Afler the
mixture, in some one of these vinays, has
been acted on in the mills for the space
of six or ei|^t hours, and when the ingre-
dients are united, and form one homoge-
neous mass, it is pressed, while yet wet,
by means of cylindric roUere of wood,
throuffh a sieve of perforated parehmem,
by vrfaich the powder is fbrnaed into
mins. In other mills, this process of
mrming it into grains takes place after
the powder has been pressed between two
boards into a solid cake, and then submit-
ted twice to the operation of a grooved
roller. The powder, after it has been
{(rained, is spreeA upon boards in the dry-
inff-houises, and exposed to the stronr heat
of an oven fiir two days. In order to
prevent its taking €je^ the oven is well
lined virith clay and copper. Of late
yean, this process of diying has been
sometimes effected by means af steam.
Finally, the powder is s(Hted by being
passed through several aieves. In the
first, or coarsest, remains what is entirely

useless ; through the 8ec<»d

the

^ passes

second-sized, or cannon powder ; and
tlut>ugh the third and kst the finest, or
musket povrder. The powder, thus pre-
pared, is packed in oaken casks. In or-
der to provide against accidents, the Eng-
lish use copper casks or vessels, with the
tops screwed on. Copper vessels are also
used in the U. States. Good gunpow-
der must be of a slate cc^or, uniform,
round and pure grain, and also bavcvs^
unifbnn color on being broken up ; npr
should it leave liehind it, either on the
hand or on paper, auv Mack spots. When
set on fire, it riiould burn at once, vrithout
crackling or leaving upon paper any op*

€njNPOWl)iER--GUNPOWI>EK PLOT.

t07

peannces of its comfauition. MThen ap-
plied to the tongue, die taste should be
extremely c(x>liBg. In order to prove its
8treD^[th, let any person apply an accurate-
ly fitting ball to a small mortar, and the
disianee to which the ball is thrown will
wove the strength of the powder. The
rrsnchjsoTenunent quwtoetU is a moitar
seven French inches in diamet^, and
three ounces of powder must throw a
copper globe, of oO pounds weight, 900
ieet ; otherwise the iK>wder is not admis-
able. An tprwnaU is sometimes used
wUch is inaccurate ; the powder throws
back the cover of a small moitar, and
with it a wheel, ^fdaich catches in a steel
spring ; the strength is determined bv the
tooth, at which tne wheel remains fixed.
This method is defective, because the
spring is weakened by use. Another
method is, to suspend a small cannon as a
pendulum, and to iudge of the strength of
the powder by ttie force of the recoil,
which will describe a greater or less arc
of a circle. In the preservation of pow-
der, fire and water must both be carefiilly
guarded against Powder destined for
inilitaiy purposes, should be deposited in
an aiiy Duilding, removed at least 1000
paces fix>m any habitation, provided with
li^itning rods, and sunounded with waUs,
ditches and palisadoes ; there sbould be a
guard constantly set, to inevent the intro-
duction of fire, and to hinder all persons
fit>m entering, who have things about them
that will produce ^re. These buildings
sbould contain openings for the ftee pas-
sage of die air ; the casks should stand
upon a platfbim of wood, at a distance
fi^m the wall, and the powder itself should
be sunned and dried eveiy one or two
years. If the powder is to be kept in
damp places^ as, for example, in the case-
mates (arched passages under ground) of
fortresses, the walls should be intemallv
covered with lead, and a vessel filled with
uDslacked lime placed in the middle of the
apartment, so that the moisture of the at-
raomhere may be attracted by the lime.
In the tranepoitation of gunpowder, dusL
which is liaMe to penetrate the cracks and
joints of the caws, should be carefiilly
guarded against, as d\e firiction may pro-
duce ezploaon. It is also necessaiy for
its good preservation, that the carnages
and vessels in which it is transported
should be water-tight. We mav efiectual-

L' preserve it fipom moisture, by dipping
cask and the sackcloth covering into
melted pitch. Vessels prepared in this
way, and containing powder, may be im-
mersed in the water for weeks, without

baviag their comoBtB in the least it^uied.
The eofects of this substance, when set on
fire, are truly wonderfuL When powder
is heaped up in the open air, and then in-
flamed, it detonates without report or
efifect A smaO quantity (mT powder left
fiee in a room, and fired, merely blows
out the windows ; but the same quantit}',
when confined in a bomb within the same
chamber, and inflamed, tears in pieces and
sets on ^xe the whole house. Count
Rumford loaded a mortar with one-twen-
tieth of an ounce of powder, and placed
upon It a 24 pouna cannon, weighing
8081 pounds; ne then closed up every
opening as completely as possible,uid fired
the charge, which burst tne mortar with a
tremendous explosion, and raised up tbis
immense weight. Whence such and sim-
ilar effects arise, no chemist as yet has
been able, satisfiictorily, to exj^ain ; and
the greater part of the explanations hith-
erto made are nothing but descriptions of
fiictB. The best explanation is, that the
azote and oxy^n pases of the saltpetre,
and the caiiiomc acid gas fix>m the char-
coal, which had hitherto been in a solid
state, are set firee, and the expansive pow-
er of aU these gases requires much more
room than tliey previously occupied.
They now endeavor to overcome the ob-
structions to their expansion, and this ten-
dency is very much mcreased by the in-
tense heat generated by the gases. The
confined steam operates in the same way,
although this is not the only cause of die
phenomenon, ss Rumford supposes.

Gunpowder Plot ; a conspiracy form-
ed in the second year of the reign of
James I (1604), for the purpose of destroy-
ing the king and parliament at a blow.
The Roman Cathohcs having been disap-
pointed in their expectations of indul-
gence firom James, Catesby and Percy,
two Catholic ffendemen of ancient fiimily,
with a few others of their persuasion, de-
tennined to run a mine below the hall
in which parliament met, and, on the first
day of the session, when the king and the
royal family would be present, involve all
the enemies of the Catholic religion in
one common ruin. A vauh below the
house of lords, which had been used to
store coak, was hired, two hogsheads and
96 barrels of powder lo<lged in it, the
whole covered with fagots, and the doons
thrown open so as to prevent suspicions.
As the ^oung prince Cnaries and the prin-
cess Ehzabeui would be absent, measures
were token to have them seized, and
Elizabeth proclaimed queen. The secret
of the cons{Hnicy was communicated

GOnfOWUESi PLOT-OUNTER'S UNE.

to more Ihaii 90 peraoDBi and had been
faithjfoUy kept for neair a year and a half.
Ten days, however, before the meeting
of pariiament, a Catholic peer received a
note fit>m an unknown hand, advising
him not to attend at the parliament, aa it
would receive a terrible blow. This be
communicated to the secretary of state,
lord Salisbury, who, although apprehend-
hig nothings thought proper to lay it be-
fore the king. James saw the matter in a
more serious light; and, on searching the
vaults below the hocises of pailiament
(Nov. 5, 1605), Guy Fawkes, an officer in
the Spanish service, who had been em-
ployed to fire the powder, was found at
the* door, with the matches in liis pocket,
and the gunpowder in the vault was dis-
covered. Fawkes was put to tlie torture,
and made a fiill discovery of the conspir-
atois, who, with their attendants, to the
number of 80 persons, liad assembled in
Warwickshire, deteimined to defend them-
selves to the last. Percy and Catesby
were kiUed in the attack ; tbe others were
made prisoners and executed. Lin^rd
(Histoiy of England, vol. ix, chap. 1) gives
a veiy full account of the conspiracy,
which does not materially differ from the
statement above given. It has been, howev-
er, asserted by others, that it was all a plot of
Salisbury's, to effect the ruin of the Cath-
olics, and that the warning csme from his
hands. In support of this, they allege that
most of the conspirators declared them-
selves ignorant of tne extent of the conspir-
acy, the Jesuits, who were implicated in
it, protested tlieir innocence, and that die
French ambassador, who made inquiries
on tlie spot, entire^ exculpates them.
(See Lettres e# JSfegocialions (PAntome Le-
fix/n 4j^ la Bo(2ene.) In the calendar of
the church of England, the 5th of No-
vember is duly noticed as aholyday at the
public offices; and the Common Prayer
book contains « A Foim of Prayer with
Thanksgiving, to be used yeariy upon the
Fifth day of November, for the bapiiy De-
liverance of King James I," &c. It is cu»-
tomaiy for boys in England, as it was for-
meriy in New England, to make an effigy
representing Guy Fawkes, which they
carry about, singing certam verses,* and

* These verses are :

" Remember, remember
The fifth of November,

Qiwpowder treaaon and plot !
We know no reason
Why gunpowder treason
Snould ever be fbrsot.
Holla, bojs! Huzza!
" A stick and a stake,
f For king William's sake ;

aakinff Ifor materials to bmn the figure.
Scuffles between boys of different quar-
ters of the town were common on this
occasion, at least in Boston, Massachu-
setts.

GuwTEB, Edmund ; an excellent Eng-
lish mathematician, who flourished in the
reign of James I, and distinguished him-
self by his inventions, which have never
yet been superseded, though some of
them have been subsequently much im-
proved.

Guntek's Chain; the chain in common
use for measuring land according to tlie
true or statute measure ; so called from
the name of its inventor. The length of
the chain is 66 feet, or 22 yards, or four
poles of five jst^% and a half each; and
It is divided into 100 links of 7.92 inches
each. 100,000 square links make one acre.

Gunter's Line ; a logarithmic line,
usually graduated upon scales, sectors,
&c. It is also called the Ztne of lines
and line qf numbersy bemg only the log-
arithms graduated upon a ruler, which
therefore serves to solve problems instni-
mentally, m the same manner as loga-
rithms do it arithmetically. It is usually
divided into a hundred {mrts, every tenth o?
which is numbered, beginning with 1, and
ending with 10 ; so that, if the first great
division, marked 1, stand for one tenth of
any integer, the next division, marked 2
vrill stand for two tenths, 3, three tenths,
and so on ; and tlie intermediate diviaon
will, m like manner, represent one hun-
dredth parts of an integer. If each of the
great diviaons represent ten integers, then
vnll the lesser divisions stand for integers;
and if the great divisions be supposed each
100, the subdivisions will be each 10. —
Use of GwnUi*8 Line :— 1 . To find the prod-
uct of tuH) numbers. From 1 extend the
compass to the muldplier ; and the same
extent, applied the same way from the
multiplicand, will reach to the product.
Thus, if the product of 4 and 8 be re-
quired, extend the compasses from 1 to 4,
and that extent, laid from 8 the same wav,
will reach to 3^ their product — 2. 7\> di-
vide one number by anoiker. The extent
from the divisor to unity vrill reach fiom
the dividend to th« quotient ; thus, to di-
vide 96 by 4, extend the compasses fix)m
4 to 1, and the same extent will reach fit>m
36 to 9, the quotient sought--3. Tofwd a
fywrOi pnmmiional to Ovree given numbers.
Suppose the numbers 6, 8, 9: extend the
compasses from 6 to 8; and this extent,

A stick and a stiuup
For Guv Fawkes' rump.
Holla, boys tHazza'"

GUNTER'S LINE-GUSTAWB !•

109

laid from 9 the same way, will reach
to 12, the fourth proportional required —

4. TV^Siid a mean /^rogffifumal&efioeefiai^
itoo given numbers, suppoee 8 and 32 :
extend the coinpasees from 8, in the left-
hand port of the line, to 32 in the right :
then, DiBectiug this distance, its half will
reach from 8 forward, or from 32 buck-
ward, to 16, the mean proportional sought.
— 5. 7h extract the square rooiofa numKr,
Suppoae 25 : bisect the distance between
1 on the scale and the point representing
25; then half of this distance, set off from
1, wiU give the point representing die root

5. In the same manner, the cum root, or
that of any higher power, may be found
by dividing the distance on the line, be-
tween 1 and the given number, into as
many equal parts as the index of the pow-
er expresses ; then one of those parts, set
from 1, will find the point representing the
root required.

Gunter's QuABRArvT is a quadrant
made of wood, brass, or some other sub-
stance ; being a kind of stereographic pro-
jection on the plane of the equinoctial, the
eye being supposed in one of the poles ;
so that the tropic, ecliptic and horizon form
the arches of circles; but the hour circles
are other curves, drawn by means of sev-
eral altitudes of the sim for some particu-
lar latitude every year. This instrument
is used to find the hour of the day, the
sun's azimuth, &c., and other common
problems of the sphere or globe ; as also
to take the aldtude of an object in decrees.

Gij:»ter's Scale, usually called, by
seamen, the gunter, is a large plain scale,
having various lines upon it, or great use
in workinff the cases or questions in navi-
gation. This scale is usually two feet
Umf, and about an inch and a half broad,
with various lines upon it, both natural
and logarithmic, relating to tri^nometiy,
navigation, &c On the one side are the
natural fines, and on the other the artificial
or logarithmic ones. The former side is
first divided into inches and tenths, and
numbered from 1 to 24 inches, running
the whole length, near one edge. One
half of the length of tliis side consists of
two plane diagonal scales, for taking ofiT
dimensions for three places of figures. On
the other half of th!is side, are contained
various lines relating to trigonometry, as
performed by natural numbers, and maxk-
ed thus, viz., Rhumb^ the rhumbs or points
of the compass ; Chordj the line of chords ;
;SXne, the lineof sines; 7\m^n the tangents;
S. T^ the semi-tangents : and at the other
end of this hal^ are, Leag^ leagues or
equal parts; Bkumbf anotherfine of mumbs;

VOL. VI. 10

M, L^ miles of loiuptude ; Chor^ another
line of chords. AJsOy in the middle of
this foot are L. and P^ two other lines of
equal parts: and all these lines on this
side of the scale serve for drawing or
lading down the figures to the cases in
tngonometiy and navigation. On the
other side of the scale are the fi^owing
artificial or logarithmic lines, which serve
for working or resolving those cases, viz.,
& /{., the sine rhumbs ; T. it, the tanj^t
rhumbs; JVViin5 Jine of numbers; iSitiie, sine^
V, S^ the veraed sines ; Tang^ihe tangents ;
Jkferi., meridional parts ; £.i^., equal parts.

Gunwale, or Guvnel, of a Ship, is
that piece of timber which reaches on
either side of the ship, fifom the half^deck
to the fore-casde, being the uppermost
bend, which finishes the upper works of
the hull in that party and wherein they put
the stanchions which support the waistr
trees. This is called thegunwaky whether
there be guns in the smp or not. — ^The
lower part of any port, where any ord-
nance is, is also termed the gunumU^

GuRNAEo (tritdOf Uil). T(NyXa, which
the Romans caOed mtifliif , does not be
lonf^ to this genus, though it was included
in It by Aitedi. These fisk which are
marine, all afiford excellent rood. They
have a scaly bodv, of a uniform shape,
compressed laterally, and attenuated to-
wards the tail. The head is broader than
the body, and slopes towards the snout,
where it is armed with spines ; the upper
jaw is divided, and extends beyond the
lower. The eyes are near the top of the
head, large and prominent, particulariy
the upper margin of the orbits. The dor-
sal finis are unequal, the first short, high
and aculeate; the second lonff, slopins
and radiate. The ventral and pectoru
are uncommonly large, and finom theur
base hang three loose and slender sip-
pondages. Manv of the species utter a
peculiar noise when taken ; many of the
species are provided with pectoral fins,
sufiiciently large to enable them to spring
out of the water. One of the species has
been denominated the lyre fish, on account
of its bifurcated rostrum, which bears a
&int resemblance to that instrument

Gdstavus I, king of Sweden, known
under the name of Guskams Fasa, bom
in 1^ was a son of duke Erich Vasa,
of Grypaholm, and a descendant of the
oki royal fiunily. He was one of those
great men, whom Nature so seldom pro-
duces, who appear to have been endowed
by her with every quality becoming a
sovereign. His handsome person and no-
ble countenance preposBessed all in his

110

GUSTAVUS I— GUSTAVUS 11.

ftyor. Hit arllen eloquence was ir-
resiBtible ; his conceptions were bold,
but his indomitable spirit brought them
to a happy issue. He was intrepid, and
yet prudent, full of courtesy in a rude age,
and as virtuous as the leader of a party
can be. When the tyrant Christian ll of
Denmark sought to make himself master
of the throne of Sweden, Gustavus re*
solved to save his country fiom oppres-
sion ; but the execution of his plans was
interrupted, as Christian seized his per-
son, aiid kept him prisoner in Copenha-
g«i as a hostage, with six other distin-
guished Swedes. When, at last, in 1519,
be heard of the success of Christian, who
had neariv ccmipleted the subjection of
Sweden, ne resolved, while yet in prison,
that he would deliv^ his countfy. He
fled in the dress of a peasant, and went
more than 50 miles the first day, throurii
an unlmown countiy. In Flensborff, he
met with some catde drivers fix>m Jutland.
To conceal himself more securely, he took
service with them, and anived happily at
Lflbeck. Here he was indeed recognised,
but he was taken under the protection of
the^senate, who even promised to support
him in his plans, which he no longer con-
cealed. He then emixuked, and luided at
Oabnar. The garrison, to whom he made
himself known, refhsed to take the pait of
a iusitive. Proscribed by Christian, pur-
sued by the soldiers of the tyrant, rejected
both by fiiends and relations, he turned
his steps towards Dalecarlia, to seek as-
fliatance fiom the inhabitants of this prov-
ince. Havinff escaped with difficulty the
dansers which surrounded him, he was
well received by a priest, who aided him
with his influence, money and counsel
Afler he had prepared the minds of the
people, he took the opportunity of a
festival, at yvidch the peasants of the
canton assembled, and appeared in the
midst of them. His noble and confident
air, his misfortunes, and the general ha-
tred against Christian, who had mariced
the veiy beginning of his reign by a cruel
massacre at Stockhohn, — all lent an irre-
sistible power to his words. The people
rushed to arms ; the castie of the governor
was stonned; and, imboldened by this
success, the Dalecariians flocked together
under the banners of the conqueror. From
this moment, Gustavus entered upon a
care^ of victoiy. At the head of a self-
raised aimy, he advanced rapidly, and
completed the expulsion of the enemy.
In 1531, the estates gave him the titie of
adaunUbraior. In 1§23, they proclaimed
him king. Upon receiving tms honor,

he appeared to yield with recret to
the wishes of the nation ; but he de*
ferred tiie ceremony of the coronation,
that he mifdit not be obliged to swear
to uphold me Catholic rehflnon and the
rights of the clergy. He mt that the
good of the kingdom required an amelio>
ration of the afiSurs of the chureh ; and he
felt, too, that this could only be efifected
by a total refoim. His chanceUor, Larz
Anderson, advised him to avail himself of
the Lutheran doctrines to attain his object.
Gustavus was pleased with this bold plan,
and executed it more by the superiority or
his policy than of his power. While he
secretly mvored the pro^press of the Lu-
theran religion, he divided the vacant
ecclesiastics dignities among his favorites ;
and, under pretence of liehtening the bur-
dens of the people, he laid upon me clergy
the chaige of supporting his anny. Soon
afler, he dared to do roll more: in 1527,
he requested and obtained fix>m the estates
the abolition of the privileges of the bish-
ops. In tiie mean while, the doctrines of
Luther were rapidly spreading. Gustavus
anticipated all seditious movements, or
suppressed them. He held the malecon-
tents under restraint ; he flattered the am-
bitious ; he gained the weak ; and, at last,
openly embraced the faith which the
greater part of his subjects already pro-
fessed. In 1530, a national council
adopted the confession of Augsbuig for
their creed. Gustavus, after having, as he
said, thus conquered his kingdom a sec-
ond time, had nothing more to do but to
secure it to his children. The estates
granted this request also, and, in 1542,
abdicated their nght of election, and estab-
lished hereditary succession. Although
Sweden was a very limited monarchy,
Gustavus exercised an ahnost unlimited
power; but this was allowed him, as he
only used it for the benefit of his countiy,
and he never violated the forms of the
constitution. He perfected the legislation ;
formed the character of the nation ; soft-
ened mannere ; encouraged industry and
learning, and extended commerce. Afler
a glorious reign of 37 years, he died in
1560, at tiie a^ of 70. (See Von Archen-
holz's Gesehichte Chiutava Wtua (Histoiy
of Gustavus Vasal published at Tubmgen,
1801, 2 vols.)

Gustavus II, Adolphus, the greatest
monarch of Sweden, was a son of Uharles
IX (who ascended the Swedish throne
upon the deposition of Sisismund), and a
grandson of Gustavus Vasa. He was
bom at Stockholm, in 1504, and received
a most careful education. At the age of

GUSTAVUS n-OUSTAVUS HI.

Ill

152, he entered the anny, and, at 16^ direct-
ed all affidiBy afmeared in the state coun-
efl and at the head of the army, obeyed
as a Boldier, negotiated as a minister, and
commaiided aa a king. In 1611, after the
death of Charles IX, the estates gave the
throne to the young prince, at the age of
18y and, without regard to the law, declar-
ed him of age ; for they saw that only the
moat enenretic measures could save the
kingdom m>m subjection, and that a re-
CQOcy would infaUibly cause its ruin.
Ilie p^ietrating eye of Gustavus saw in
Axel Oxenstiem, the youngest of the
ooimseDors of state, the great statesnum,
whose advice he might foDow in the most
dangerous situations. He united htm to
hinnelf by the bands of the roost intimate
fHendahipw Denmaik, Poland and Rus-
sia were at war with Sweden. Gustavus,
unabfe to cope at once with three such
powerful adversaries, engaged, at die
peace of Knared,in 1613, to pay Denmark
1,000,000 doUars, but received back all
that bad been conquered fiom Sweden.
After a successful campaign, in which,
accoiding to his own confession, his mili-
tary talent was formed by James de la
Gmdie, Rusaa was entirely shut out from
the Baltic by the peace of Stolbowa, in
1617. But Poland, ahhou^h no more
suecesrful against him, would only con-
sent to a trace for six years, which he ac-
oeptEMl, partly because it was in itself ad-
vantBgeous, partly because it afforded him
opportunity to undertake somethii^ deci-
sive agamst Austria, whose head, the em-
peror Ferdinand 11, was striving, by all
means^ to increase his power, and was
likewise an irreconcilable enemy of the
Protestants. The intention of the emper-
or to make himself master of the Baltic,
and to prepare an attack upon Sweden,
did not admit of a doubt But a still
more powerful inducement to oppose the
progress of his anns, Gustavus Adolphus
found in ^e war beitween the Catholics
and the Protestants, which endangered at
ODce the freedom of Germany and the
whole Protestant church. Gustavus, wh6
was truly devoted to the Lutheran doc-
trines, detennined to deliver both. After
explaimng to the estates of the kingdom,
in a powerful speech, the resolution he
had taken, he presented to them, with
tears in his eyes, his daughter Christina,
as his heiress, with the presentiment that
he should never again see his country,
and intrusted the regencv to a chosen
conncil, excluding his wife, whorn, how-
ever, he tenderiy loved. He then invaded
Germany in 16^0, and landed, with 13,000

ineii, on die coasts of Pomeraaia. What
difficulties oj^poeed him on the part of
diose very pnnces for whose sake he had
come ; how his wisdom, generosity and
perseverance triumphed over inconstancy,
mistrust and weakness; what deeds of
heroism he performed at the head of his
army, and how he feU, an unconquered
and unsullied general, at the batde of L(it-
zen, Novemb^ 6, 1633, may be seen in
the article Thirhf Ytmf War. The
curcumstancee immediately attending his
death have long been rekted in varioua
and contradictorv ways; but we now
know, from the letter of an officer who
was wounded at his side, that he was
kiUed on the spot, by an Austrian ball.
The king's bun coat was carried to Vien-
na, where it is still kept; but Bernhard
von Weimar carried the body to Weissen-
fels to give it to the queen. There the
heart viras buried, and remained in the
land for which it had bled.

Gustavus Illf king of Sweden, bom
in 1746, was the i^ldest son of Adolphna
Frederic, duke of flolstein-Gottorp, who
was chosen to succeed to the Swedish
throne in 174^ and of Ulrica Louisa, sis-
ter of Frederic 11 of Prussia. Count
Tessin, to whose care the prince vras in-
trusted from his fiflh year, endeavore^"^
form his mind aud character with a c^
stant view to his future destination, and
was especially amdous to restrain the am-
bition of the youth, and to inspire him
with i^e^pect for the constitution of Swe-
den. His successor, count Schefrer, jhu*-
sued the same course ; but the ambition
of the young prince was not eradicated.
His docility or disposition, afbbility of
marmers, and gentieness, concealed an ar-
dent thirst for power and action. Manly
exercises, science and the arts, the pleas-
ures of society, and displays of splendor,
united with taste, appoured to be his fa-
vorite occupations. Sweden was then
distracted by factions, especially those of
the fM^B and ftoto, by vniich names the
partisans of Russia and Franoe were dis-
tinpuiihed. Both parties, however, were
imited in their efforts to weaken the roval
power as much as pos^ble. The £ither
of Gustavus, a wise and benevolent
prince, had found his situation quite po*-
plexing. Gustavus himself encountered,
with great boldness and art, the difficul-
ties which met him on his accession to
the throne, after his father's deadi, Feb-
ruary 12, 1771. He established the order
of Vasa, to gain over some enterprising
officers of the army, and a party was
fonned, principaJlv eonsiBting of young

lid

GUSTAVUS III.

officers devoted to him. Emissaries
were sent to nm over the troops station-
ed in the other parts of the kingdom.
Some influential individuals, aroonff
whom were the counts Hermanson and
Schefier, had also joined the royal party.
A new plan was devised, and the parts so
distributed, that the king's brothers were
to begin the revolution in the country,
while the king himself should commence
operations in the capital Agreeably to
this plan, the commandant of Christian-
stadl^ captain Hellichius, one of the truest
and boldest adherents of the king, Auirust
12, 1772, caused the city gates to be ^lut,
and all the entrances to be guarded, and
published a manifesto against the states
general. Prince Charies then appeared
before Christianstadt, and conuuenced a
pretended siege, wherein no one was in-
jured. The lung, in the mean time, play-
ed his part so peifectly, as to dissipate the
suspicions of me secret committee of the
states. The committee ordered patrols
of the citizens in the capital, which the
, king always attended, and, by his insinu-
* nting address, gained over to his cause the
principal part of the soldiery and many
of the officers. While he was thus pre-
paring for tlie decisive moment, he ap-
^l^ed serene and composed; and, on
" ^"""'iHe evening preceding the accomplish-
ment of the project, ne held a splendid
court, which he enlivened by his anability
and gayedr. On the following day,Au-
ffUBt 19, 177% afler taking a ride, the
king went to the council of the estates, at
the casde, where, for the first time, he en-
tered into a wann dispute with some of
the counsellon. He then went to the ar-
senal, on horseback, where he exercised
the guard. In the mean time, the officers,
upon whom he thought he could depend,
assembled, in consequence of a secret or-
der to that effect, and accompanied him
to the casde, where, at that tune, tliey
were changing guard, so that those who
were retiring, and those who were mount-
ing guard, met. With the entrance of the
king into the castle, the revolution began.
The king then collected the officers about
him, in the guard room, unfolded to
them his plan, and demanded their sup-
port Most of them were voung men,
and were immediately^ gained over by tlie
thought of delivermg their country.
Three older officers, who refused, had
theur swords token from them by the
king. The rest swore fidelity to his
cause. The kmg's address to the soldiera
was received wim loud acclamations. He
then set a guard over the entrances to the

hall of the council, and commanded them
to remain quiet, after which he returned
to the arsenal, amidst the acclamations of
the people, and secured the adherence of
the regiments of artiUeiy. A public proc-
lamation exhorted the inhabiumts of
Stockholm to remain tranquil, and to
obey no orders but those of the kinf.
Cannon were planted, guards distributed,
and several persons arrested, bf wav of
precaution. Thus was the decisive blow
struck without bloodshed, and the kinc
returned to the casde, where he received
the congratulations of foreign ambassa-
dors, whom he had invited to his table.
On the following day, the majgistrates of
the city took the oath of allegiance in the
great mariLet-place,amid the acclamatious
of the people. But it was necessary for
the estates also to approve of the revolu-
tion, and to accept the new constitution,
by which ^e roval power was enlarged,
not so much at the expense of the estates
as of the council The next day, they
were summoned to meet at the castle,
where they found themselves without any
attendants. The court of the castle was
guarded by soldiers, cannon were planted
before the hall of assembly, and a can-
noneer stationed at each piece with a
lighted match. The king appeared with
a numerous rednue of officers and unu-
sual pomp, depicted, in a forcible manner,
the situation of the kinadom and the ne-
cessity of a reform, declared the modera-
tion of his views, and caused the new
constitution to be read, which yns imme-
diately approved and confirmed by sub-
scription and oath. Almost all the public
officers retained their stations ; those per-
sons who had been arrested were set at
hberhr, and the revolution was completed.
The king now exerted himself to promote
the prosperity of his country. In 1783,
he went through Germany to Italy, to use
the baths of Fisa, and returned to Swe-
den the following year through France.
During his ab6ence,*a fimiine had destroy-
ed thousands of his subjects ; the people
murmured ; the nobility rose against the
kin^s despotic policy, and the estates of
the Kingdom, in 1786, rejected .almost all
his propositions, and compeUed him to
make great sacrifices. A war having
broke out between Russia and the Porte,
in 1787, Gustavus, in compliance with
former treaties, determined to attack the
empress of Russia, who had promoted
the dissensions of Sweden. War was
declared in 1788 ; but, when the king at-
tempted to commence operations by au
attack on Friedrichsham, he was deserted

GUSTAVUS m--GUOTAVUS IV.

113

by the greatest part of his army, who re-
fused to engage in an offensive war. The
king retired to Haga, and thence to Dale-
oarna, in search of recruits. He soon col-
lected an army of determined defenders
of their country, and delivered Gothen-
biug^ which was hard pressed bv the
Danes. Meanwhile, however, the msur-
rection of the Finnish army, which had
concluded an armisdce with the RusBian&
still continued. The critical situation of
the kingdom required the convocation of
the estates. To overcome the opposition
of the nobility, he constituted a secret
coomaittee, of which the nobUitv chose
12 membeiB from their own number, and
each of the estates, who were devoted to
the king, six. The nobility, however,
continuM their opposition to the king,
who, being encouraged by the other es-
tates to avail himsdf of eveiy measure
he might think advisable, finalhr took a
decisive step, arrested the chiera'of the
opposition^ and exacted the adoption of
the new act of union and safety, April 3^
1789, which conferred on him more ex-
tensive powers. The war was now pros-
ecuted with great energy and with va-
rious success, ffioodybatdes, especiallv
by sea, were pained anh lost ; but although
Gustavus vahantly opposed superior forces,
yet the desperate state of his kingdom,
and the proceedings of the congress
at Reichenbach (q. v.l inclined him to
peace, which was concluded on the plain
of Werelie, August 14, 1790. Untaught
by the warnings of adversity, he now de-
termined to take part in the French revo-
lution, and to restore Louis XVI to his
throne. He wished to unite Sweden,
Russia, Prussia and Austria, and to place
himself at the head of the coalition. For
this purpose, in the spring of 1791, he
went to Spa and Aix-Ia-Ubapelle, con-
cluded a peace with Catharine, and con-
vened a meeting of the estates at Gefle, in
Januaiy, 1792, which was dissolved, in
four weeks, to the satisftction of the king.
Here his assassination was agreed upon..
The counts Horn and Ribbing, the barons
Bielke and Pechlin, colonel Liliehom,and
many others, had conspired to murder
him, and restore the old aristocracy. An-
kancitBm (q. v.), who personaUy hated the
king; b^ged that the execution might be
intrasted to hiuL A masauerade at
Stockholm, on die night of March 1&
1798, was chosen for the perpetration of
the crime. Just before the beginning of
the ballf the king received a warning ncrte,
but he went, at about 11 o'clock, with
count Essen, stepped into a box, and, as
10*

all was quiet, into the halL Here a crowd
of maskers surrounded him, and, while
one of them ^count Horn) struck him
upon the shoulder, with the words, ** Good
night, mask,'' the king was mortally
wounded, by AnkarstrcBm, with a shot in
the back. With remarkable presence of
mind, he immediately took alt the neces-
sary measures. He expired March 29,
after having arranged the most important
affairs with serenity (see ,^rmfeU\ and sign-
ed an order for proclaiming his son kmg.
Gustavus IV, Adolphus, the deposed
king of Sweden, was bom Nov. 1, 1778,
and, on the death of his father, Gustavus
m (March 29, 1792], was proclaimed
king. He remained 4i years under the
guitfdianship of his uncle, Charies, duke
of Sudermannland, then regent (after-
wards king Charles XIII), and ascended
the throne Nov. 1, 1796. In his 18th
vear, he was betrothed to a princess of
Mecklenburg, when the empress Catha-
rine invited him to St Petersburg, with
the design of iiiarryiiighim to her grand-
daughter Alexandra Paulowna. c)very
thing was ready for the marriage, and the
assembled court waited for the young
king, when he refused to sign the mar-
ria^ contract, because it embraced some
articles which he would not concede to the
empress ; among others, one securing to
the young <}ueen the free exercise of the
Greek religion in her palace, which was
contrarv to the fundamental laws of the
Swedish kingdom. Nothing could chan^
the determination of Gustavus ; he retu--
ed,and shut himself up in his chamber, so
that a stop was put to the whole ceremo-
ny. Soon after (October, 17971 he mar-
ried Frederica, princess of Baaen, sister-
in-law of the emperor Alexander and the
king of Bavaria. As a striking example
of his foliar, it is related, that he was once
on the point of commencing a bloody
war with Russia, because he insisted on
paintinff a boundary bridge, with the
Swedish color on the Russian side.
When the northern powers were nep>-
tiatingthe renewal of me armed neutrahty,
directed especially i^;ainst Enffland, be
went to St. Petersburg,m 1801, to hasten the
conclusion of the treaty ; he was well re-
ceived by Paul I, who bieirto wed on him the
cross of St. John of Jerusalem. In July,
1803, he visited the court of his ftther-
in-law at Carlsruhe, in order to gain over
the emperor and the princes ofthe em-
pire to the ^!OJect, i^ch then seemed
impracticable, of again placing the Bour-
bons at the head of the French govem-
menL He was in Carisruhe when7March

114

GUSTAVUS IV.

15, 1804), the duke D'Enffhien was seiz-
ed in the territoriee of Baden. . Gustavus
immediately sent his aid-de-camp to Paris,
with a letter to Bonaparte, for the purpose
of saving the duke, who, however, was
shot before the letter was received. Gus-
tavus sent a remonstrance to Ratisbon, on
thti subject, and was, excepting Alexander
I, the only sovereign who openly expressed
Us indignation at this deed. His rup-
ture with France, his alliance with Great
Britain and Russia, and his coolness to-
wards the king of Prussia, to whom he
sent back the black eagle, because it had
been bestowed on Napoleon, were the
consequence of his hatred of the new
emperor of France. It having been cal-
culated that the number 666 was contain-
ed m the name of Napoleon Bonaparte,
Gustavus believed him to be theoeast
described in the Revelations, whose reign
was to be short, and for whose destruction
he was called ! His ambassador deliver-
ed to the German diet of 1806 a declara-
tion of the king, that he would Uike no
part in its transactions, so long as its acts
were under the injfluence of usurpation ;
he also rejected the offers of peace made
by Napoleon a short time before the peace
of Tilsit; and, July 3, 1807, broke the
truce with France, and even refused the
mediation of Russia and Prussia, after the
peace of TUsit He retui-ned the Russian
order of St. Andrew, as he had formerly the
PlruBfiian order of the eagle, and, by his ad-
herence to England, plugged his people in-
to a disadvantageous war with Russia, and
became anew tiie enemv of Prussia, and
then of Denmark. Finland was lost, and
a Danish army threatened the ftt>ntiers of
Sweden. Deaf to all solicitations to con-
clude a peace, he alienated the nobility
and the army by his caprices, and exas-
perated the nation by the weight of the
taxes. Having finally provoked the en-
mity of En^and, by seizing the English
ships m the Swedish ports, when that
power endeavored to bnnghim to reason,
it appeared plain to every one, that he
was ready to sacrifice the wel&re of his
people to his passions. A plot was se-
cretly formed against him ; the western
army, assured tlutt the Danes would not
pass the fit>ntieiis, took up its line of
march to Stockholm, where the principal
consfMrators were plotting in the imme-
diate presence of Gustavus. It was only
70 mues from the capital when Gustavus
heard of its approach. He hastened from
Haga, where he was residing with his
family, to Stockholm, to defend his cap-
ital against the rebels. But he altered his

plan, and determined to go to Linkio|ring
with the troops which were in Stock-
holm. He was about to remove the bank
fiT>m the capital, but first required it to ad-
vance him $2,000,000, orthegreiitest sum
which could be raised. The commissa-
ries refused to comply ; Gustavus showed
an intention to use force ; upon which it
was resolved to anticipate him. Such
was the situation of af&irs on the evening
of March 12, 1809. The king spent tiiat
night in preparing eveiy thing for his de-
parture, and the moment arrived when be
was to take the money from the bank.
Three doors of the palace were already
secured, and all the ofilicera were assem-
bled, as it was the usual day of parade.
Field-marshal Klingspor and general Ad-
lerkreuz, however, once more attempt-
ed the effect of conciliatoiy proportions,
when Gustavus highly offended them by
his insulting manner. Adlericreuz then
called the marshal Silbersparre and five ad-
jutants, demanded of the kin^* his sword,
and declared him a prisoner m the name
of the nation. Gustavus attempted to
strike him with his sword, but it was
wrested from him. Upon his ciy for help,
some of his fidthful followers mrced the
doors ; but they were overpowered by 30
of the conspirators, who rushed in upon
them. During this struggle, Gustavus es-
caped, but was seized upon the stairs and
brought back to his chamber by one of his
servants, where he broke out into an un-
governable fit of rage. All the entrances
of the casde were closely guarded. At
noon, Charles, duke of Siraermannland,
published a proclamation, declaring tliat
he had taken the government into his
own hands. The revolution was com-
pleted in a few hours. Gustavus now
submitted quiedy. Perhaps his religious
enthusiasm was the cause of his present
state of mind. At one o'clock at ni^ht, he
was carried to Drotningholm. His wife
and children were obliged to remain in
Haga. Mareh 24, he was remov^ to
Gripsholm, his favorite place of residence.
Here he published (Mareh 29) an act of
abdication, expecting the final sentence of
the diet, which, on its first session (May
101 solemnly renounced their allegiance
to him, and declared the heira of his body
for ever incapable of succeeding to the
Swedish throne. Thereupon a fonnal
act was prepared. The dethroned king
occupied himself at Gripsholm, princi-

SiUy in studying the Revelation of^ John,
e viished to leave Sweden. The estates,
on the proposition of the new king, Charles
XIII, setded on him an annual pension for

GU8TAVUS IV-OUTTENBERG.

115

himself and family. His private proper-
ty, as well as that of his wife and son,
was abo left him. He did not occupy
the place of residence aasigned to him in
the island of Wisin^Oe, but (Dec. 6,
1809) went from Gnpehohn to Gennany
and Switzeriand, where he lived under
the title of count of Gottorp. He has nnce
separated from his wife and children ; and
his mania^ was, on the 17th of Februaiy,
1812, at his own request, annulled. The
same year, he also desired to be admitted
among the Moravian Brothers at Hermhut.
Since his separation from his wife, he has
been accustomed to wear the mystical re*
lirious badge of the order of St John. He
afterwards made several tours without anv
definite object, visited St Peterebuiv, and,
in 1611, London. In December, 1814, he
was nuJting preparations at Bale for a visit
to Jerasalem. In 1815, he presented a
declaration to the congress of Vienna, as-
serting the claims of his son to the Swedish
throne. He finaUy assumed the name of
Giutavson, and visited Leipsic, in 1827, as
a private individual. His son Gustavus,
W110 was bom in 1799, studied in Lau-
sanne and Edinburgh, was present at Vi-
enna and Verona at the time of the con-
gress in 1822, and in 1825 entered the
Austrian service, as lieutenant-colonel of
the imperial Hulans. He lives at Vienna,
and enjoys the tide ofroycd highnes$. He
has thiee sisters, carefully educated by their
excellent mother (who died in 1826). The
eldest was mamed, in 1819, to Leopold of
Hochbeig, margrave of Baden.

Gusto; an Italian word signifying
taste. It often occurs in muse ; as, am
giutOf with taste.

Gut, in the West India islands, partic-
ularly in the island of St. Christopher's, or
St itittfB, is a term for the openinff of a
river or brook, such river or bnxm also
being ^ften so called.

GuTs-MuTHs, John Christian Frederic,
bom in Quedlinbuig, 1760, was the first
German author who wrote extensively on
the various exercises included in the mod-
em gymnastics. Guts-Muths was^ for a
long time, a teacher in the institution of
Sdzmann, at SchnepfenthaL He wrote
several worics on gjmnnasdcs. EGs latest
is the TSitmbudi (rankfbrt on the Maine,
1818), in which he adopted manv exer-
dsesy as also the name of the book, fiom
that of John (q. v.), as the latter had al-
so adopted many things fiom him. He
wrote, too, a Geography (2 vols., 1810 —
1813), and edited a mUothdi der p&da-
gogtMien Lderahir^Lifarary of Wons on
Education (]80a--1820, 55 vols.) Guts-

Mutfas lives, at present, near Schnepfen-
thal.
GuTTA Serena. (See Catar^A
GuTTENBERo, more properiv Gutek-
BERo, John, or Henne G&nsedeisch vou
Soigenloch (Sulgeloch), usually called the
inventor of printing, was bom at Mentz,
about 1400. The fiunily of Gutenberg
called itself noble. In 1424, Gutenbeiv
was living in Strasburg, and, in 149^
entered into a contract with one Andrew
Dryzehn (Dritzehn) and othera, binding
himself to teach them all his secret ana
woudeifiil arts, and to employ them for
their common advantage. The death of
Diyzehn, which happened soon after, frus-
trated the undertaking of the company,
who had probably intended to commence
the art of printing ; especially as George
Dryzehn, a brother of^ the deceased, en-
gaged in a lawsuit with Gutenberg, which
turned out to the disadvantaee of the lat-
ter. When and where the first attempts
were made at printing cannot be fully
decided, as Gutenberg never attached
either name or date to the works he
printed. This, however, is certain, that,
about 1438, Gutenberg made use of mov-
able types of wood. In 1443, he returned
from Stinsburg, where he had hitherto
lived, to Mentz, and, in 1450, formed a co-
partnership vrith John Faust, or Fust, a rich
goldsmith of this city (who must not be
confounded with the famous magician
Faust), who furnished money to establish a
press, in which the Latin Bible was first
printed. But, after some years, this connex-
ion vras dissolfed. Faust had made large
advances, which Gutenberg ought to have
repaid ; and, as he either could not or
would not do it, the subject was carried
before the tribunals. The result was, that
Faust retained the press, which he im-
proved and continued to use in company
with Peter Sch6fi^ of Gemsheim. By
the patronage of a counsellor of Mentz,
Conrad Hummer, Gutenbeiv was again
enabled to establish a press £e following^
year, when he probably printed Hermanm
dt SMuSptemum Saeerdoium (in quarto)^
without the date or the printer's name.
Here, likewise, as some mamtam, appeared
four editions of the Donat (Latin gram-
mar of Donatus), which othera, however,
ascribe to the ofiSce of Faust and Sch6fier.
In 1457, the Psalter was printed with a
typographical elegance which sufficiently
proves the rapid advances of the new art,
and the diligence with which it was culti-
vated. Gutenberg's printing-office re-
mained in Mentz till i465. About this
time, he was ennobled by Adolphus of

116

OUTTENBERG-GUYS.

Naasau, and died Feb. 24, 1468. Lkde is
known of his life and woiks, or of tbe
early p r o g roaa of the art of printing, and
the introduction of movable ^rpes. Val-
uable statements and suggesUons on this
subject are to be found in Fischer's Vtr*
such zur eHd&rvng aUer

g;i740);Ober.
lin's BeUri^ zur GesehidUe Gutanberg
fStrasbui^, 1801) ; and in the woiks (S*
Denis, Lichtenbeiger, Panzer, and many
other writeiB.

Guttural (from the Latin guttur^ the
throat) signifies, in grammar, a sound pro-
duced chiefly by the beck parts of^tbe
cavity of the mouth. The palatals g and
k are nearly related to them. The Greek
Xf the German ek after a, and ck after t,
and the Dutch g, are gutturals. The
Arabian language is full of ffutturals, and
many of them are unknown m most other
languages. (See the article H, for the re-
lation between g and the guttural sound of
the German ch or the Greek x-) The mod-
em Greek gives to x a very strong guttural
sound, like that of the German eh after e
andaflero. The Irish r isa true guttural.
The French nasal sound, as in longj is a true
guttural ; the Eingltsh sound in Icng not
so much, as it is less nasal. The Span-
ish n has been called, by some, a naaal'
guttural. The roughness of the dialect
of Switzerland is owing to its strong and
numerous sutturals ; for it not only pro-
nounces all the gutturals of the German
language very forcibly, but abo gives to
gf in many cases, the harsh guttural
sound of en after a.

Gut ; a rope used to keep steady any
weighty body from bearing or fiJIing
against the ship's side while it is hoisting
or lowering, particularly when the ship is
shaken by a tempestuous sea. — Guy is
also the name of a tackle, used to confine
a boom forward when a vessel is eoing
large, and to prevent the sail from shifting
by any accidental change of the wind or
course, which would eiKianger the spring-
ing of tbe boom, or perhaos the upsetting
of the veaseL— Gt^ is likewise a larse
slack rope, extending from the head of the
main-mast to the head of the fore-mast,
and having two or three large bk)cks fiis-
tened to it It is used to sustain a tackle
to load or unload a ship with, and is
accordingly removed as soon as that ope-
ration ii finished.

Gut, Thomas, the founder of Guy's
hoiqpitaJ, was the son of a lighterman in
Southwaik, and bom in 16(L He was'
brought up a bookseller. He dealt largely
in the importation of Bibles from HoUand,

and afterwards contracted with Ozfoid for
those printed at that umversil^ ; but his
principal gains arose from the disreputable
purchase of seamen's prize tickets, in
queen Anne's war, and fit>m his deaungs
in South sea stock, in 1720. By these
speculations and practices, aided by the
most penurious habits, he amassed a for-
tune of neariy half a million sterling, of
which he spent about £200,000 m the
building and endowing his hospital in
Southwark. He also erected almshouses
at Tamworth, and benefited Christ's hos-
pital and various other charities, leaving
£80,000 to be divided among those who
could prove any degree of relationship to
him. He died in I>Bcember, 1724, in his
81st year, after having dedicated more to
charitable purposes than any private man
in English record.

Gut de Chauliac [Gwdo dt CMIiaco)^
a native of Chauliac, on the frontier of
Auvergne, France, lived in the middle of
the 14th century, and was the j^hysician
of three popes. He is to be considered as
the reformer of surgery in his time. His
Chxrurgia magna contains most of the
ofHnions of his predecessors. It was long
conndered as a classical text book ; was
finished at Avignon in 1363; and was
printed at Bergamo (1496, folio). An
older edition is mentioned (Venice, 1470,
folio). It has been often repainted, com-
mented on, and translated into modem

^UT Fawkes. (See Gvnpwoier PloL\
Gut's Hospital, in the borou|Kh of
London. (See Gwf.) The hospital was
established for 400 sick persons, besides
20 incurable lunatics. It contains 13
wards, and upwards of 400 beds. There
are three physicians, three surgeons, and
an apothecary. The averajpe number of
patients adimtted annually is about 2250»
besides whom there are 20,000 i»ut-pa-
tients. This hospital has a collection of
anatomical preparations, and a theatre for
the delivery of chemical, medical and
anatomical lectures. On one evening in
the week, medical suUects an debated.
GuTON, Madame. (See (hdetimn.)
Guts, Pierre Augustin ; bom at Afar-
seilles, 1721 ; a merchant in Coostantino-
irfe, and afterwards in Smyrna ; known for
his travels and his acoounlB of them. He
subsequently became a member of the in-
stitute, and of the academv of Arcadians
in Rome. His first work a|ipeared in
1744, and contained an account of his
jeumey fix>ni Constantinople to Sophia,
the capital of Bulgaria, in a series of letters.
In 1748, he publuhed, in the form of let-

GUYS— GYMNASIUM,

117

ten, an account of his jouniey from Mar-
Beilles to Snijrma, and thence to Constan-
tinople. He was mostly indebted, for his
liteniiy &me, to his Vovage UtUraire de la
Grkty a woric in wfaicn he compares and
contrasts, with much acuteness and truth,
the condition of ancient and modem
Greece, and their pohtical and civil con-
sdtution. Guys also made himself known
as a poet, by hjs Seasons, on the occamon
of his journey to Naples, which was re-
ceived with much applause. On the pub-
lication of his Voyage de la Grhce, Vohaire
addressed some veiy flattering verses to
him, and the Greeks conferred on him the
privileges of an Athenian citizen. Guvs
died at Zante, in 1799, at the ace of 79, as j^e
was collecting materials for me third edi-
tion of his travels in Greece. — ^His son,
Pierre AJphonse, was appointed secretary
of the French embassy to Constantinople,
to Vienna, and to Lisbon ; afterwards con-
sul in Saidinia ; then at Tripoli in Africa ;
and, finally, at Tripoli in Syria, where he
died in 1812. He published letters on the
Turks, in which he treats of the rise and
decay of their power. He was also the
author of the comedy La Mauon de Alb-
Uhty infbur acts, altered fit>m GoldonL

GwnnnETT, Button, one of the signers
of the declaration of independence, was
bom in England, about the year 1732^ and,
in 1770, emigrated to Charieston, S. C,
where he continued the business of a
merchant, in which he had been previous-
ly engaged. At the end of two years,
however, he abandoned conunerce ; and,
purchasing a plantation vrith a number of
negroes, on St. Catharine's island, in Geor-
iria, devoted his attention to agriculture.
Soon after the revolutionary struggle com-
menced, he took an active part in tibe
afiirs of Geoiypa ; and, Feb. 2, 1776, the
geoetBl assembly of the province elected
him a representative to the ceneral con-
greas hela at Philadelphia, n^ere he ap-
peared May 20. He was reelected Octo-
ber 9, and, in February, 1777, was ap-
pointed a member of a convention for the
purpose of framing a constitution for the
state ; and the foundation of that after-
wards adopted, is said to have been fur-
nidied by him. He was soon chosen
prraident of the provincial council ; but
his conduct in this station was obnoxious
to censure, as he empk>^ed his powers for
the purpose of thwartmg the operations
of general Mcintosh, against whom he
had a personal enmity, in consequence of
the latter having succeeded in obtaining
the poet of brigadier-general of a conti-
nental brigade, to be levied in Georgia, for

which Gwinnett himself had been a can-
didate. In May, 1777, Gwinnett was a
candidate for the chair of governor of the
state, but fiiiled ; and, on the 27th of the
same month, a duel took place between
him and Mcintosh, on account of some
insulting remarks of the latter. Both par-
ties were wounded ; but the injury received
by Gwiimett terminated his life in the
45th year of his age.

GwTNN, Eleanor, better known by the
name of JVeB, the celel»ated mistress of
king Charles II, was at first an orange
giri of the meanest description, in the
play-house. In the first part of her life,
she gained her bread hv smginc fiiom tav-
ern to tavern, and ffradually advanced to
the rank of a popiuar actress at the thea-
tre royal She is represented as hand-
some, but low of stature. She was mis-
tress, successively, to Hart, Lacy and
Buckhurst, before i^e became the favorite
of the king. It is said that, in her eleva-
tion, she showed her pratitude to Dryden,
who had patronised her in her poverty ;
and, unlike the other misbesses, she was
faithful to her royal lover. From her are
sprung the dukes of St Alban's. She
died in 1687.

Gtoes ; a favorite of the Lydian king
Candaules, who, to convince nim of the
beau^ of his queen, showed her to him
naked. The queen was so incensed at
this shameful act, that she ordered Gyses
either to murder the king, ascend nis
vacant throne, and become her husband,
or to atone for his curiosity by death. Af-
ter having labored in vain to shake the
resolution of the queen, he chose the for-
mer part of the alternative, murdered
Candaules, and was established on the
throne in consequence of the response of
the Delphian oracle. This is the story as
related by Herodotus. There is a fkble of
a ma^c ring, which Gyges found in a
cavern when a herdsman, and which had
the power of rendering its possessor in-
visible, whenever he turned the stone in-
wards. By the aid of this ring, he en-
joyed the embraces of the queen and
assassinated the king. To have the ring
of Gy^ was aflervvards used proverbially,
sometimes of fickle, sometimes of wicked
and artful, and sometimes of prosperous
people, who obtain all they want

Gtmnasium; the name given by the
Spartans to the public building where the
young men, naked (hence the name, fiom
yvfi W9S, naked), exercised themselves in leap-
ing,running, throwing the discus and spear,
wresding and pugilism, or in the penUMon
(qviinqueHium) so called. This Spartau

118

GYJWNASIUM.

iDidtaticm yvns imitated in moat of the
cities of Greece, and in Rome under the
Cttstn. Its obyectB^ however, did not
remain confined merely to corporeal exer-
cises, but were extencJed also to the exer-
cise of the mind ; for here philosophers,
rhetoricians, and teacheis of other bnoiches
of knowledge, delivered their lectures. In
Athens, there were ^ve gymnasia, and
amonff them the Academy, the Lyceum
and me Cynosarge. In the first, Plato
taught ; in the second, Aristotle ; and in
the dkud, Antisthenes. They were, at
first, only open level places, surround-
ed by a wbU, and partitioned off for
the dmes^ent games. Rows of plane-
trees wer« pluited fbr the purpose of
shade, which were afterwards changed
into colonnades with numerous divisions.
The gvnmama, at last, were composed of
a nuEnber of c<nikected buildings, spacious
enough to admit many thousands. Vitru-
vius has given an exact description of the
arrangement of them in his work on
architecture (5, 11 ). Some gymnasia con-
tained m(ne, and some fewer apartments ;
and all wore funsished with a multitude
of decorations. Here were found the
statues and altars of Mercury and Hercu-
les, to whom the gymnasia were dedicated ;
sometimes, also, the statue of Theseus, the
inventor of the art of virrestliug; statues of
heroes and celebrated men ; pamtings and
foasB-reliefi, representing subjects con-
nected widi religion and history. The
Hermes figures (see Hermes) were among
the most common ornaments of gymna-
sia. Here vras assembled every thmg that
could improve the youth in the arts of
peace ana of war ; every thing that could
elevate and raise their minds; and, while
these institntions flourished, the arts and
sciences also flourished, and the state
firospered. The governor of a gymna-
sium was called the fymnasiardu Some-
times such a gymnasium was ^tyMpaUu-
trOf which was, properly, only the part
where the aUdet^ destined for the public
exhibitions, exercised themselves. Ignara
is of opinion, that a distinction was made
between the gynmasium and palaestra, at
the time when the philosophers and oth-
ers commenced their lectures here ; that
the latter was designed to promote phys-
ical, and the former mental education sim-
|ri[y. In the latter sense, the high schools
in Germany, where young men are fit-
ted for die universities, have been called
gytmuuioj in modem times. In Rome,
during the republic, there were no
buildings which could be compared vrith
the Greek gymnasia. Under Uie Caesars,

the public baths bore some resemblance to
them ; and the gymnasia nmy be said to
have expired with the thermae. (See
Oymnailics.)

Chfmnatioj Gtrman, From the time of
the revival of leaminff, when almost all
knowledre was derived through the Latin
and Gredc, — and certainly no existing lit-
erature could be compared to that con-
tained in these two languages, — the study
of them obtained rach possession of the
schools, that it has, ever since, influenced
the studies of youth in Europe, and par-
ticularly in Germany, to sHch a de|^ree,
that it is very difficult to restore the proper
balance in schools ofthe higher kind. The
gymiuxnaj the name of these schools in
Germany (derived firom the andent term),
taught Latin and Greek, and the branches
connected with antiquity, almost to the
exclusion of other sciences. But, in mod-
em times, when the namral sciences have
made such distinguished progress, and
rich stores have accumulated in manv
modem literatures, and the importance o}"
madiematics has been increased, the fiailts
of this arrangement have become obvious,
and some authorities, particulariy in Pms-
sia, have already established institutions,
in which history, mathematics, natural
philosophy and modem languages may be
learaea without Latin. In the gymnaaa
themselves, more time is allottedto these
branches tiian formeriy. The gymnasia
of PrasBia probably cany the scholar far-
ther than any institutions of a omilar kind
elsewhere. No limits are fixed for the
smy of the scholar in each class ; every
year an examination fbr the next clasB
takes place, to which every scholar is ad-
mittea. Classes are generally divided into
two sections, and a scholar cannot be pro-
moted fVom the lower into the higher
vrithout an examination. The last exam-
ination, to show whether the pupils are fit
to enter the university, is very severe : fbr
three days they have to write exercises, on
questions proposed to them, in history, the
Latin and Greek languages, mathematics,
besides themes in Geniian, and in at
least one foreign modem language, alone,
shut up in a room, without Inx>1^ ; or, if
several are together, they remain under the
eye of a professor, so that they cannot
talk to each other. The verbal exam-
ination generally lasts one dav, in presence
of commissioners appointed by govern-
ment. The compositions of the scholars
are sent to the mmister of instraction and
ecclesiastical a^rs. According to the
result of the examination, the scholars re-
ceive testimonials, maiiced No. I, II, or IIL

GYMNAdlUM-OYHNASTICS.

119

The fint k difficult to gain, and

If miTBle Bcboob or (as is the case in aev-
eru citiea) orphan aaylunis wkh to send
scholan lo the uniTenity, their must appty
to flovemment for comnuaaionen to at-
tend their examination. Penons who
have fitted themaelvee for the univeiahy,
witlioiit attending a gymnasiam, or any
fldiool, can be examined by a committee
appointed by the sovemment, which nti
eveiy half year, ui order to obtain No. I,
die pupil must write Latin and Greek
without granupatical fiuilts, and in a pretty
good styfe ; be able to translate and explain
one of the most difficult daaeic authors
(in some gymnasia, Pindar is even taken
finr this purpose); be well acquainted with
the branches of the lower pure mathe-
matics, viz. all below the integral and dif-
fferential calculus, and prove this bv the
solution of problems ; nave a knowledge
of general history, and the most impor-
tant periods ; know, bendes the Ger-
man, one or nK»e modem languages, so
that he can write in them pretty correctly
(themes are generally takoi, by which the
scholar shows his logical powers, and the
soundness of his ideas). If he is to
Btudy theoloffy, he is also examined in
Hebrew. Ii he is deficient in either
of these branches, he can cmly obtain
No. n. If he is <tefieient in aU, be re-
ceives No. ni, which indicates that he is
not fit for the umversity.

Gtmhasticb (&om Y^inmvruutf peitaiUr
mf to exerciser if we understand by
this word aU bodily excises, may be
most conveniently divided into— 1. mili-
tuy exercises ; 2. exercises systematical-
ly ada|)ted to develope the jihysical pow-
era, and preserve tnem m perfection,
which constitutes the art of gymnoiHes^
propcarfy so called ; 3. exercises for the
flid^ a most important branch, which has
been veiY little attended to. The ancients
divided weir gynmastics into gywmuUea
mSUariOy gymnattiea mediea (including un-
der tfaiB h€«d our second and third divis-
ions)^ and gymmulica ofMefico, or, as Galen
calb them, vUiioM^ vrfaich were practised
by pt^o ss i onal athletes at the gymnastic
nmea, and were in bad repute with re-
flecting men, even in those times, on
aeeount of their injurious efibcts on the
heahh and morals. The class of aym-
nasties which we have enumeratea un-
der the second head, have their origin
in th« exercises of v^ar and the chase.
The preparation of youth for those oc-
cupations leads to the introduction of
gymnastics; and the chase itwlf has been

by many nations as a prep-
aration for war; the Spartans and Amer-
ican Indians are instances. The aodents
do not inform us preciselv of the origin
of nrmnasticB, considered as a branch
<^ education. We fine find them in a
vjrstematic form amonjjf the Greeks. Tho
nrst gymnasium is said to have been es-

led in Sparta. In Athens, alwavs
disposed to mingle the element of the
beautiful in whatever she undertook,
gymnastics were refined fifom the rude
military charactem, which they bore among
the Spartans, into an art ; eid the gym-
nasia became temples of the oraces.
(See Gynmatium,) Vitnivius (lib. v) gives
a description of a gymnasium. In esch,
there was a place called paUutra^ in
which wrestlinc^ boxing, runnias, leap-
ing, throwin|; the discus, and othtr ex-
ercises of this kind, were taught. 6ym-
nasdcB were afterwards divided into two
principal branches^- the pakesCiic, taking
Its name from the /Mtofro, and the or-
chestric. The former embraced the
whole class of athletic exercises ; the lat^
ter, dancing and the art of gesticulation.
It is not knovim, with accuracy, what
particular exercises were usually ^ac-
tised in the gymnasia. The enthusaaam
for athletic sports among the Greeks,
their love of the beautifiu, which was
gratified in the gymnasia by the sight
of the finest human forms in the prime
of youth, and 1^ the halls and colon-
nades adorned i^^ statues and pictures,
and occupied by teachen of vrisdom and
philosophy, rendered these places the
mvorite resorts of the okl and ^oung.
Gymnastics evra formed an essential part
of the celebration of all the great feadvak.
Afier a time, however, the character of
the competitora at the Olympian, Isth-
mian, Nemasan, and other great games of
Greece, degenerated, as they became more
and more a separate ckos, exercising, at
least in many cases, in buikliiMs exclu-
sively devoted to them. Euripides calls
them useless and injurious memben of
the state. It is not precisely known to
what extent their exercises were prac-
tised in the rvmnaaiB. The Greeks, as
weH as the Bomans, set a very hifh >
value upon the art of swimming. In
Sparta, even the voung women swam in
the Eurotas ; and a common phrase of

contempt, ttnn vuv ^nrt y#a|ifi«rf ffftffmSat

(he can neither swim nor write), is well
knovni. It is well worth while to read
the obseivatioiis of Mercurialis on this
subject, in lib. iii, cap. 13^ of his valuable
Jtina ggmnadka apid Antiqyoi cdAeni-

GYMNASTICS.

nuB LSbn sex (Venice, 1569). Ruimiiig
was ako much esteemed, and the OWm-
piadfl were, for a long time, named nom
the yictoiB m the race. Ridinc on horse-
-oack wae deemed a liberaT exercise.
Dancinff, by which we are not to un>
derstand the modem dancing of the two
sexes intermingled, but the art of grace-
ful motion, including oratorical gesture,
together with certain fbimal dances per-
formed at festivals, was likewise indis-
Csnsable to an accomplished man. (See
ucian, ntpt op;^n«f.) Wrestling was also
much -valued. There are not many ma-
terials remaining, to enable us to judge of
the exercises practised by the Grecian
women. In later and corrupt times, they
look part in the public games with men.
With the decline of Greece, the symnastic
art naturally degenerated, ana became
sradually reduced to the exercises of pro-
fessional athlete, which survived for a long
time the ruin of the land of their birth. The
Olympic games continued to be celebrated
several centuries aAer Christ Some late
travellers have thought that tliey could find
traces of the ancient games remaining
even in our day. ^ You have the Pyrrhic
dance as yet," says Byron. The Romans,
under the emperors, imitated the gymna-
sia as tliey dia every thin^ Grecian ; but
tlieir estauishments were htde better than
places of vicious gratification. The thei^
ins, or baths, in Italy, took the place of
the gymnasia in Greece. Among the Ro-
mans, gymnastics never became national,
as they may be said to have been among
the Greeks. There are some indications,
indeed, of eariy gynmasdc games, — ^we
mean the consualia ; but with this stem,
martial and practical nation, gymnastics
took altosether a more militaiy char-
acter. They were considered merely as
preparatory to the military service, or,
when they constituted a part of the exhibi-
tions at festivals, were practised only by a
particular class, trained for bratal enter-
tainmenti, at which large bets were laid
among the spectators, as is the custom at
the English races. (Martial, ix, 68 ; Sueto-
nius, Tit, 8.) Veffetius gives us infomoa-
tion concerning; me exercises in which
the yoimg soldiers were trained, and they
were of very useful character. When all
the acquisitions of the human intellect
were lost for a season, and some for
ever, in the utter corraption of the latter
ages of the Roman empire, and the erap-
tion of wanderine bamarians, the gym-
nastic art perished We may date its re-
vival from the commencement of tourna-
ments, the first of which were held in the

9th and 10th centuries in France, and
may have had their origin in the militaiy
games of the Romans, aided by the mar-
tial spirit of the descendants of the Ger-
man conquerors of France. They re-
ceived, however, their full perfection fix)m
the spirit of chivalry. The first tourna-
ments were fought with blunt weapons,
which were called armes gracieusts. At
a later period, sharp weapons were intro-
duced, and many fatal encounters hap-
pened before the eyes of the ladies. About
the year 1066, Godefit>y de Preuelly col-
lected the roles and customs of tourna-
ments into a code, which was afterwards
generally adopted. At a later period, the
character of these celebrations degene-
rated so much, that they were finally pro-
hibited by the pope and the emperor, as
the Roman luai nad been several times
prohibited by the emperors. With the
superiority which, in the course of time,
inrantiy Mgan to acquire over cavalry, as
it always does vnxh tne advance of civil-
ization and scientific tactics (see Marhia-
velli's Treatise on Ike Art qf Ifctr), and the
invention of gunpowder, the institutions
of chivaliy declined. The heavy steel
coats were done away, and the art of skil-
ful fencing began to be introduced. The
first treatises upon this subject appeared
in the 16th century. The Italians were
the first teachers, and three different
schools, the Italian, French and German,
were soon formed. We speak here of
fencing with the small-sword; but the
Germans also practised the art of fencing
with a straight broad-sword, perhaps ow-
ing to their neighborhood to the Slavo-
nian nations, who all prefer the cut to the
thrust The weapon of the Slavonians,
however, is the crooked sabre. At the
same tune, vaulting began to be much
practised. The Roman desuUores (Livy,
xxui, 29, and Vegetius), indeed, lead us to
suppose that the Romans knew some-
thmg of this art ; and it was no doubt also
practised by the knights of the middle ases ;
but the present art of vaulting is mo£sm
in its character, and canied to the great-
est perfection in France. Fiffhting with
a dagger, and even with a knife, was
taught as useful in this turbulent afe, and
much skill was attained in Holland, in de-
fence by the weapon last mentioned, per-
haps owmg to the fondness of the Dutch fer
Eublic houses (estandnds\ as this art may
e called, by way of excellence, theybictiig'
qf the totem. We even recollect having
seen, in an appendix to old works on fenc-
ing, the art of^defendinff one's self ajnimic
attacks, with a pewter oeer-pot. Wrest-

GYMNASTICS.

191

fin;, as an ait, abo WM remed, and man jr
treadBBS were written on it in the 16m
and 17th centuries^ from which we learn
that it was often pracdaed in connexion
with bozinff, foimingthe aame compound
aa the ancient jNBimrfnim. The ramoua
painter Albert D6rer wrote .^nnarum
traeUmdorum MedHaHo (in 1412). It still
exisiB in manuacript at Brealau. Modem
horBemanahip had its origin in Italy. The
iifBt riding-achool was cntablished at Na^
plea. In the reign of Henry VIII, it waa
introdiiced into England. Running,
shooting, huriing, leaping, were not taught
syatematically ; vet much importance waa
attached to proficiency in them, in many
paita of Europe, on account of the nu-
meroos popular meetinga, like thoee which
still exiat in Switzeriand. Even at the
present day, young women, with kilted
cMUa, nm races at a certain festival in
Mecklenburg. Swimming, at this period,
was not taught as an art Where there
were convenient places for bathing, chil-
dren naturaUy learned it Elsewhere lit-
tle padns were taken to instruct them in
diis oeeftil branch of gymnastics ; though
in many pans of Europe there were races
on and in the water. In the a^ of wigs,
gymnastics declined, and eflfemmate pleas-
ures took their place. Riding, fencing,
vaulting and dancing alone remained, and
e^'en Aesewere gradually neglectecl by
the people, and confined to the nobility, on
which account these exercises were some-
times called the exercises qf the noUes ; at
loMt, dus was the case on the European
continent. In England, where noble
ftmilies never formed so distinct a caste
as in other countries of Europe, those
branches of gjrmnastics which still sur-
vived, vrere more generally practised.
The Greeks had, besides the combats
with tlM cttstet, a contest of boxing, term-
ed spharomaMa, because the combatants
had bails in their hands, fioxing, taught
with caution, is an invigorating exercise,
and the sluUbl boxer is always furnished
with natural arms. Theartofcudgel-play-
nig IB a useful exercise, as practised in
France, where it is different drom that
which is practised in England. In the last
century, when men broke loose fivm the
yoke of authority,and thinking and thouffht-
leas heads began to speculate deeply or niv-
oloudy on the exisdng order of things, ed-
ucation began to receive its share of at-
tention, and the better sort of tearhera aaw
that gymnastics must soon be introduced
among the other branches of instruction.
Salzmann, a German clergyman, was the
fiiat instructer of youth, at whose institu-

TOI- VI, 11

tion in Thuringia bodily exereiseB were
taun^ in the latter part of the last centu-
ry. These were prindpaUy running, leap-
ing, swimmmg, chmbmg, balancing. Guts-
Muths virrote a very respectable treatise
upon modem gymnastics, which, as the
first, deserves much praise. He afterwards
wrote a more enlaived work on tiie same
subject {See Quts-Mdhs.) The results of
this system of exercise, aided by the
healthy situation of Salzmannli school,
are deserving of notice. In thirty-two
yeare, 334 scholani, Beam various nations,
were educated at this establishment; and
not one acholar died there. Seven or
eight families also were connected with tiia
institution ; and fiom theae only three chil-
dren died during the same period, and two
of these were under a year old. In some
fow existing establishments, this example
was imitatM ; but the age was still too
efifeminate, formal mannera too prevalent,
to allow rvmnastics a proper place in edu-
cation. The French revolution broke out,
and Europe received a warlike character.
Germany was conquered by the French,
and the desire to repulse them became gen-
eral, but no hope of immediate resistance
existed. All eyes were naturally turned
tovrards the youth ; and while there was a
general desire of reviving in the nation a
patriotic spirit, Jahn (q. v.) conceived the
idea of establishing gyiimasia for two rea-
BoncH-to prepare the young for a fiiture
vrar against the French, and to brinff to-
gether in the gymnasia youths of all cIbbb-
es, who mightbe inspired with a love for
tiieir common oountnr. Doctor Jahn estab-
lished his first TVtn^wrfz, the German name
for gymnasium, near Berlin, in 1811. But
the disastera uliich the French armies ex-
perienced in Russia, led the Germans to a
war against France much sooner than the
roost sanguine had hoped. When the
peace of Paris was concluded, the gym-
nana, which had been ckised during
the time of vrar, were reopened ; ana,
when the Germans found themselves dis-
appointed in their expectations of liberal
institutions, when the princes broke their
solemn promises, the gymnasia were made
use of to inspire the youths with an ardor
for liberty. Many imprudent steps were
token by the German people, and Jahn
himself was not always wise in his con-
duct. Much had crept into the gymnasia
with which the public vras dissatisfied,
and when Sand (q. v.) assassinated Kot
zebue, and the government, which had
already become sus^ncious of the gymna-
sia, ordered them to be closed, no oppo-
sition was made. We muat not omit to

GYBINA8T1CS.

mention here, that, some yean before, the
PniBBian goTemment bad ordered an in-
vestigation into the gymnasia by the gov-
ernment's jphyncian^ whoee report was
decidedly mvorable. When the persecu-
tions acainst liberals were renewed, in
1824, with creater violence, Mr. V61ker, be-
ing compelled to seek an asylum in £nj^-
land, established the firat gynmasium m
I London. At the some time, captain Clias^
a Swisi^ established a gymnasium at Chel-
sea, in the royal miUtaiv asylum. He soon
after published his woik on gynmaMics, the
only merit of which is its brevitv and
clearness. Jahn and his pupil ^iselen
had published, soon after the peace of
Pans, a woik on modem gymnastics,
which is excellent in many respects^
tbou|^h it is sometimes too minute and pe-
dantic When the gymnasia were founaed
in London, caHtthtmeSf or exereises fix
females, were fint taucfat; but thou^ we
think that they should never be omitted,
yet we consider those exereises which
were taught as founded on eironeous
principles. A system of healthy and
gracenil exercises fer females may be ea-
tablished ; but those which are now cen-
erally practised in English boardmc-
schools are wrong in principle. Gymnasia
have since been reopened m some places
of Germany, but they are now strictly
confined to bodily exercises. In 183Ss
doctor Beck, a German, and pupil of
doctor Jahn, eetaUiBhed the first mnna-
slum in America, m Northampton, Massa-
chusettB. Others have been subsequently
established in dififerent parts of the coun-
tiy. Respecting the various exercises
themselves, we must refer the reader to
a Treatise on Gymnastics taken cliiefiy
fit^mthe German of F. L. Jahn (1 vol.,
8vo., Northampton, Massadiusetts, 1828).
The writer of this article has always ob-
served, that the pupils of a gjrmnasium
after a while lose their interest in the ex-
ercises. This was observable even in
Germany, where patriotic feelings were
mingled vrith the exercises. The reason of
this appears to be, that litde or no differ-
ence IS made in the exereises of difierent
ages, and it is natural that an exercise re-
peated for years should become weari-
some. Gynmastics therefore, when they
- are taught as a regular branch of educa-
tion, oufffat to be divided into two courses.
In the fist course we would include walk-
ing and pedestrian excursions ; elementa-
ry exereises of various sorts ; running, 1.
quick, 2. long continued ; leaping in
height, length and depth ; leaping with a
pole, in length and height ; vaulting; bal-

ancing ; exereises on the single and par
allel bars ; climbing ; throwing ; dragging ;
pushing ; Uftina ; carrying ; wreoding ;
jumping, 1. with the hoop, 3. with the
rope ; exercises with the dumb-bells ;
various gymnastic games ; skating; dau-
oin|^ ; some military exereises ; swimming,
which we include in the first course, be-
cause it can be easily taught to childreu.
Some of these exercises, of course, are
not suitable ibr very young children, and
they should be distnbufeed in a re^lar
gradation, which caution and expenence
will teach. Gymnastics, propeiiy so called,
may be begun by a boy mm six toeigfat
yean old. The second course consists of
repetitions of some of the former exer-
cises of vaulting, both on the wooden and
the living horse, either standing or run-
ninff in a circle; boxmg, driving, riding
on nMseback, and fencing with the broad-
sword and the small-sword. Fencing
with the small-sword appean to ua the
noblest of gymnastic exercises. No other
is so well entitled to the name of an art ;
no other calls the powere into such active
exercise ; no other requires such quick-
ness of limb^ of mind and of eye, together
with so much self-possession ; no other
developes so completely the whole fi«me.
It is a noble art Riding, indeed, deserves
likewise the name of an art, in which a
man may make continual improvement. It
cannot, nowever, be called so pure a gym-
nastic exercise as fencing, and, in its na-
ture, it is more mechani<»l. Many excel-
lent horsemen are men of very inactive
or limited minds; but all good fencers
whom we have known, were men of
quick apprehension and lively intellect.
This accounts for the cireumstance that
the artists of the middle ages valued
fencing so hi|^hly. Almost aS the great
mastera and distinguished poets of Uiose
times, were skilfiil swordsmen, and some
of them wrote treatises on the use of tlieir
fevorite weapon; for mstance, Leonardo
da Vinci.* mxin^, riding, and the varioua
exercises on the hving horse, should not
be commenced much liefore the sixteenth
year. For the views of the vmter, respect-
ing the manner in which gymnasia should
be established and carried oii,to afibrd the
greatest advantaj^e, we refer the reader to
an article by him m No. V of the American
Quarteriy Review, where they are given

* Of Tasso tt was commonly said, af\er he bad
manfully repelled three assailanu—

CoUa pemta e colla gpadOf
NUtuno vale quanta Tomo.

Kw father was a distingnished fencer, as was Al

bertDOrer

GFyMNASnC8*43YPSIES.

ISS

•t aome length. As to cah'ittctwci, or
txenmm for the female sex, thej ahould
be founded ohiefiy on bahneipg, which
may exereiae the name in a great Tariety
of wajBi afibidhig the means of giaceml
motion, and betiur siifficiaitly strengthen-
uigforfenia]e& Those exercises wh^h en*
luge the hand, and make the muscles of the
ami rigid, are not suitaUe for them. The
cheit may he derek^ied in many ways
witboot ezerdHitf the aims too much ;
sa objection to nHuch the exercises with
the dumb-bells are liable.

Gtmnosophists, or Bbachhaics ; the
mme f^ren by the Greeks to the Indian
pfailosc^rfierB, because, according to tradi-
tioo, they went naked. They were di-
vided into two sects — ^Biahmans (Brach-
muM, fikaminsi and Samans (Sarmans^
Gannansi Or their philosophical sys-
tems we Know only that they made philos-
ophy to eoosiat in constant meoitation
and die serereet asoedc habits, by which
they sooght to overcome sensuality, and to
mule tinmselves with the Deity. They
often burned themselves ahve, to become
pure the sooner, as Cakmus did in the
presBneeof Alexander, and Xarimarus at
AthoH^ when Augustus was there. The
little acquaintance of the ancieoti with the
Indies save rise to man^ wonderful stories
w ipe ctm g tfaam. Hus name is some-
times given to the sagss of .fithiqna.

GntMCEJTM {yvwaiKthVf yvvaimivlwA The

Greeks ifid not hve on a footing of fiiendhr
iniimaey with their wives, like the mod-
ems, but preserved a certain distance,
fasndsd down from the eariiest aces, when
women were rmrded as the staves and
the ji w ip c rt y of thehr husbands. Hence
the ftimer mhdbiled a different pait of the
houM, tenned gyiMBeeum, or the females'
^wtiiient, the most remote interior room
ia the building, situated behind the court.
Under the ILoman empenm, there was a
pntieakur esldUishment of ^^lusceo, bemg
akhid of manufoctorieB, ohiefly under the
miBagement of women, for the making
of docfaes and fonuture fer the empensni
househokL In imitatkm of these, many
modem manufectoriea, particulariy those
of silk, where a nundmr of females are
asBocMSed, are called mMBceo.

GnrjBcocKACT; a form of government
in whkh females are ehgiUe to the su-
preme command.

GmiBS (from EgwaikmBy the name bv
viiieh they were called in the Enghah
ttatutes); a wandering nation, whose Asiat-
ic foim, language aiKl customs differ en-
tirely from those of European nations.
The German nsme Zigtuner has been

conridered, by some, of Genaui oricin,
and derived from Zieh-Ck nme r (wander-
ing roguea] ; yet this seems eironeous, for
even when they fint appeared in Hunga-
iv, in the beginning or the 15th centui^,
they were called Zifttmi and Ztngom.
The Italians, Walaehjans, and even the
Turks, called them Zmgms 2Vdbtr^faiit
and Zigani This name is notdenved
from the iS%yfititf, who^ according to He-
rodotus, inhabited the countiy extending
from the Pontus to the Adriatic sea ; but
it appeals most probable that it is origioal-
Iv Indian ; fer at the mouth of the In*
dua, there is still a sunikur people, the
Tchingani, whom lieutenant Pottinger
lately met with in Beluohlstan, on the Per-
sian frontieis, snd describes as resembhng
the gypsies in theur peculiar customs.
The Dutch call the gypsies JEfetden (hea-
then). The Swedea and Danea call them
Taaitsn; the French, BsAesiMsis. The
Spaniards call them Gdonot, which des-
ignates their crafty character. They cidl
themselves PharoAn or SmUe (which cor-
responds to Smdiy the Hindoo name of
the inhabitants of Hindostan). This peo-
ple is spread over all Eurc^M, and it is prob-
sble there sre 700,000 scattered throuah
the diflbrent European countries. The
greater part, however, appear to lead theur
strolling life in the south of Spain. In
England, there are above 18,000. Sir Wal-
ter Scott has given an esCoellent descrip-
tion of them in Guv Mannering. It
is believed in Ei^sno, that they are of
Lidian origin, and that they belonged to
the WD% m die Sindes, an Indian caste,
which was dispersed, in 1400, by the ex-
peditions of Tunour. Their language is
the same throughout Europe, with but
little variation, and even now corresponds
with the dialect of Hindostan. It has
been proposed, in Eitgland, to establish
schools far them, and to convert them by
means of missionsrieeL In Germany and
France, there are but few ; but they are
numerous in Hungszy, Transyhama and
Moldavia, where dieir number amounts to
about 900,000. They are still more nu-
merous in Bessarabia, the CrimeiL near
Constantinople, snd in the whole of Tur-
key. They are remariuMe for the yeUow
brown, or rather olive color, of then* skin ;
the jet black of their hair and eyes ; the
extreme whiteness of their teeth, on ac-
cotmt of which many of the gypsy ^iris^
particulariy those of Spain, are consider-
ed beauties; and for the svmmetry of
their limbs, which distinguishes even the
men, whose general appearance, how
ever, is repulsive and shy. The gypsiei;

GVPSIES.

have mttcli elaideitv and quickneflB ; they
are seldom of a tail or powerful fiame ;
their phyaaoimomy denotes caielesBness
and levity. Thev rarely settle permanent-
ly any where. Wherever the climate is
mild enough, they are found in forests
and deserts, in companies. They sel-
dom have tents, but seek shelter from the
cold of winter in grottoes end caves, or
they build huts sunk some feet in the
eaith, and covered with sods laid on poles.
In Spain, and even in Hungary and Trsn-
enrlvania, there are, however, some who
follow a trade. They are inn-keepen^
horse-doctors, and dealers in horses ; they
are smiths, mend old pans and ketdes,
and make iron utensils, nails snd the like.
Some work in wood, mskinf spoona,
sfundles, troughs, or they sasist the tarmer
in the fielda. Their talent for music has
been remarked, but it is confined to in-
strumental music, which they chiefly
practise by the ear. They puy on the
violin, Jews-harp, the bude, flute and
hautboy. Their music ror dancing is
lively and expressive ; there are no b^ter
musicians for the Hun|fBrian and Polish
national dances. Then* lively motions
are remarkable in their own peculiar
dances^ and they have great talent for
mimicry. The gypsies who formerly
traversed Germany supported themselves
by tricks, the women telling fortunes
with cards ; the men dandng on the rope,
and performing similar feats. The gypsy
women, in their younger years, particu-
laity in Spain, are dancers. As soon as
they grow older, they invariably mctiae
fortune^telUng and chiromancy. This is
their chief occupation in all parts of Eu-
rope. The children go pertecdy naked
until their tenth year. The men wear a
shirt and trowsers ; the women, petti-
coats and aprons, red or light blue. In
Enffland, thev have red doalu with hoods,
and, genendk, a handkerchief tied over
the head, liiey are fond of rings and
ornaments. Those gypsies who live a
setded life are very fond of dress. Their
house utensils consist of a pan, dish, ket-
tle and a silver muff ; their domestic ani-
mals are horses and pigs. In EIngland,
they have always donkeys in their cara-
vans ; their food is disgusting. They are
fond of (mions and ^uiio, according to
the Oriental custom. They eat all kmds
of flesh, even that of animals which have
died a natural death ; on which account,
a murrain is the most welcome event for
them. Some 90 or 40 years ago, they
were accused, in Hungary, of having
slau^tered human beings and devoured

them, and, in ocMMoquenoe of this ebaijge,
were treated with the oreatest severity.
Their guik, however, nas never been
proved. Brandy is their fovorito bever-
age; tobacco their greatest luxury ; both
men and women chew and smoke it with
avidity, and are ready to make great sac-
rifices for the sake of satisfying this in-
clinadon. They have no peculiar reli-
ffion. Amongst the Turks, tney are Mo-
hanunedans; and in Spain, at least, as
well as in TraiMylvania, they follow the
forms of the Chiistian religion, without,
however, caring for instruction, or having
any interest in the S|Nrit of religion. In
Transylvania^ they ofbn have meir chil-
dren baptized repe«tedly at different pkoes,
for the sake of the money which it is
customary in that country for the cod^
fother to give to the poor parents of hia
god-child. Marriam are formed in the
rudest manner. The young gypsy mar-
ries a girl, without earing if she is his sis-
ter or a stranger, often when he is not
more than 14 or 15 yean old. In Hun-
cary, another gypsy officiates as priest at
die wedding. No gypsy will many any
but one of ms race, if ne becomes tired
of her, he will turn her off without cere-
mony. There is no idea of edncatioD
amongst this people. A blind, almost an-
imal love for their children, prevents them
fipom punishing them, so that they grow up
in idleness, ana are accustomed to steal and
cheat The dqmvity of thispeople is ao
great, that they have a real enjoyment in
cruelty ; so that they were formerly em-
ployed, in preference, aa executioneis. At
the saiiie tuiie, thev are great cowards, and
only steal where tney can do so with safe-
ty, '^^ never break into houses at
night llie plague having oocumd in a
certain town of Spain, the gypaes flock-
ed into the houses m hordes^ simI plunder-
ed the unprotected inhabitantBi In Tran-
sylvania, they are very expert at washing
{{old. On account of th«r coward-
ice, they have never, in Spain, been uasd
for solcuers. In Hungary and Transylva-
nia, diey have been occasionally taken in-
to the armies, but they have never distin-
ffuished themselves by bravery. It has
been repeatedly proposed to banish this
people nom Europe. " In France and
Spam, in Itaiy and Germany, laws were
passed against them in the 16th century,
but even persecutions were of little avail
towards rooting them out They always
appeared again in the southern countries^
As they are very numerous in the Austri-
an states, and have a kind of constitution
there amongst themselves, being in a

GYP81E8-«YPSUM.

Ids

manner govonMd l^ chief gypaiea or
iM^iMNfef, the mat Maria Theraaa form-
ed the plan or converting them into or-
derly men and citiaenBi In 1766, ahe la-
flued an ordinance, that, in future, gypaiea
ahould dwell in aettled habitationB, practiae
some trade, dreas their children, and aend
them to achooL Many of their dieguating
cuatoma were prohibited, and it waa or»
deredt that they ahould forthwith be call*
ed JV^utaiem (new peaaantB), inatead of
their fonner name of gmmts, Thia or-
dinance remaining inenectual, reeouae
waa had, in 1773, to aerere meaaurea; the
children were taken from their parenta,
and brought up in Chriatian prineiplea.
But aa lilue waa eflfected in this way as
by the Yeiy mild meaaurea ad«qited by the
BiwwMm covemment However, the ordi-
nancea o? Joaeph II (1762 et aeq.), to for-
ward the improvement of the gypaiea, in
Hungaiy, Iranaylvania and the jBannat,
have not been without eflfect With re-
gard to thdr lanffuage, moat of the wonla
are of Indian ongiu. They are found, in
part, with litde variation, in the Sanacrit,
in the Malabar and Bengal languaj^ea, and
many worda have been adopted m>m the
diflferent nations amongst whom tliev re-
aide. Heber, biahop of Calcutta, relates,
in his Narrative of a Journey through the
Upper Provinces of India, &c. (London,
1838,2 vo]8.|, that he met ¥rith a camp of
gypnes on tne banks of the Gan||ea, who
spoke the Hindoo language as their moth-
er tongue. Heber found the same people
in Penia and Ruaeda. Their arammar ia
also Oriental, and corresponcu with the
Indian dialects. This similarity cannot
be considered the wori^ of chance, partic-
ulariv as their persons and customs show
much of the Hindoo character. It has
even been attempted to derive their ori-
gin from a particular caate of the Hin-
dooa. But this cannot be the respectable
caste of the mechanics and agriculturists.
They are more probably a branch of the
Pariaa, who are considered contemptible
by an the other Hindoos, because they
five in the greatest uncleanlineaa, and eat
the flesh of beasts, which have died of
seknesB. It cannot, however, be easily
esqilained, why this particular caste should
have left their country and spread
throughout Europe. The Tschinganes,
a nation at the mouth of the Indus, ap-
pear, at least, judging from their name,
move likely to be connected with the gyp-
siea. The gypaiea also call theraselvea
Suufe, a name which doubtless has some
coneapondeuce with Smd or indua, Mr.
Richardson, some time since, described
n *

an Indian nation whom he caUed Aiitr or
PentoeApcrt Knd Batigen, (See a diacua-
abn (» the similari^ of the gypsy lan-»
guage with the Hindoo, in the TVwimc*
thfu ofthtlALSodOjf of Bombav, 182a)
Although they acknowledge the Moham-
medan religion, they are much like the
gypaiea in cuatoma and manners, in their
propenaity to thieving, fortune-telling and
uncleanlineas. In 1417, the fiist mention
is made of the gypsies in Germany. They
mpear to have come from Moldavia into
Germany and Italy. At that time, they
aheady wandered about in hordes with a
commander at their head. In 1418, the
number which entered Italy alone, was
estimated at 14,000 men. There were
many in Paris in 1429. They were first
believed to be jnlgrima, coming from the
Holy Land ; they were, consequently, not
only unmolested, but they received letters
of protection; for instance, from Sigis-
mund, in 1423. It ia known, however,uuit
in later timeB,they were veiy expert in coun-
terfeiting similar documents. What may
have been the cause of their leaving their
country, is not known ; but very probably
they were induced to fly from the cruel-
ties exercised bvTamerlane, on his march
into India, in 1998, when this savage con-

3ueror filled the countiy with bl<M>d and
evBStation. — 8ee GreUmann's Histor,
Fernuh aber die Zigeunar (Historical
In<i}uiiy concerning the Gypaiea), 2d edit
Gottinf^en, 1787; and Job. v. MfiUer'a
Schcenergesckiehte (History of Switzer-
land), voL a Samma. JFerke, voL 21, p.
369etseq.

Gtpsum, sulphate of lime, or common
plaster of Paris, is found in a great variety
of forma. It ia either in regular crystals,
in which form it ia sometimes called uU-
mte, or in large ciystalline platea and
masses, which are perfectly transparent,
and aa pure as the finest plate-glass ; or it
occurs in fascicular or radiated masses,
which are also crystallized ; it is some-
times found in snow-white, scaly flakes,
like foam or snow ; it is aometimee semi-
tranqiorent, like horn ; and, lastly, it is
met ^vith most commonly in huge, fine or
coarse-grained compact masses, forming
rocks, and constimtiug laige and extensive
strata. In this form, it exhibits a great
variety of colors — wlute,red, brown, blue-
ish white, &c The variety of gypsum
hist described, constitutes all the hilband
beds of this mineral, which are so fi«-
quent among secondary rocks, and in
what are cafied theaoft and coa2 /onno-
tuma. It occun rarely, if ever, among
the primitive rocks, and not oflen among

lao

CFYPSUM— IL

thorn of the tmuHtion claflBL It Ls almoit
ul>vay8 found associated with the rock
salt, whereon sak-spiings are found. It
contains but few vegetable or aninial
remains ; those that occur, are chiefly
bones of quadrupeds, amphibia, fresh-wa-
ter shells, and vegetable remains. Caves
are of frequent occurrence in gypsum.
The purer semi-transparent specimens of
gypsum are used for ornamental works,
as vases, urns, &c^ and for statuary ; for
which purposes its softness makes it very
ufleful» and easy to wmk ; but this also
renders it difficult to polish. In this 'last
form, it is the alabaster of the arts. It
constitutes the material used in maldng
the fine plastering for the internal finish-
ing of coedy edinces, and gives the walls
a most beautiful whiteness. It is also
used, oiler being bunied, for the composi-
tion of stucco-woik of all sorts. But the
great and important use of gjrpsum, or
j^tuUer, as it is usually called, is for ma-

nuring grass and grain lands; in which
cases It 18 tnily invaluable. And it is in-
conceivable how sreat an additional quan-
tity of grass wm be obtained, by the
sprinkling a peck of ground plaster upon
the acre or land. It is certainly the
cheapest and best manure for grass or
min. It is found in all the countries of
Europe, and occurs in veiy extensive de-
posits in New Yoik, and m the Western
States, in aU which great quantities are
du^ and sold for the uses above de-
scribed.

GTRTALCOif, or j£&FALCOif. (See Fd-
eon,)

Gtromanct (from the Greek words
yvpos, a circle, and luvrtia, prophecy) ; the
art of prophesving by means of a circle,
described by the soodisayer with various
ceremonies, and around which he walks,
saying inagic words, and makinff mysteri-^
ous motions, the more effectually to de-
ceive the uninitiated.

H ; the eighth letter and sixth consonant
in the En^Ush alphabet H was not al-
ways considered a consonant. The other
consonants are pronounced with a less
opening of the mouth than the vowels, but
h with a ffreater opening than even the
vowel 0. In Latin and ancient Greek, it
was, therefore, not considered as a conso-
nant, but merely as a breathing. The latter
language, as is well known, had no literal
sign for it, but merely what is called the
rovgh hmdhing (M ; and in Latin proso-
dy, it is not considered as a letter. In
languages in which h is conndered a con-
sonant, it is classed with the gutturals. In
connexion with other consonants, it some-
times renders them softer; as^for instance,
after p ; in Italian, however, it serves to
give to c and g, followed by e or i, the
hard sound (that of ^ in gwe, and c in
color) ; hence che is pronounced ifce, and
gkSbfUmo like gibeUne in English. It is
a very delicate Tetter, and is frequently not
sounded at all ; as, in French, in all words
beginning with h derived from Latin. It
also takes die place of other letters, as of
^(q. v.), in Spanisli, or of c ; as the people
m the environs of Saint-Malo say htef
and hloche for def and cloche. In the ar-

ticle O, it is shown how intimately h is
connected with the two guttural sounds
of the German ach ana ich; and, as
tliese are only stronger aniirations than ft,

fis intimately connected with ft, as we
nd to be the case in the Sclavonic lan-
guages. In the Bohemian, Wendii^ and
Sclavonic languages, ft, at the beginning
of a word, particularly before I and r, is
frequendypronouncedlike g orgh ; as, for
instance, Hlubos is pronounced OZu6o»ft ;
Huapodar, Gospodar. The name of the
German town GlaucKa comes from the
Wendish Hhuhowe ; and in the Rusnan
alphabet, g and h have onljr one charac-
ter. In ttie ancient Prankish dialect, h
often stood before /, r and t ; and, at a later
period, it was sometimes suppressed,
sometimes changed into ch or k; as Hlo-
ihar^ HrudM Hlodomg, have become
Lothcdre and Cla&airt^ Rudoff^ Ludung.
But we must not suppose that h was not
pronounced, wherever it would be diffi-
cult for us at present to sound it ; because
we find die aspirates ft, r, w, before /, »i,
&C., in die dialects of the North Ameri-
can Indians. An erroneous aspiration
early cropt into the Latin, of which Cice-
ro complains (Orcrf.48), and on which Ca-

H— HABEAS CORPUS.

127

tuIiuB made an epigram (c. 63). The or-
thography of pykktr^ irwmfihym^ cohara^
&c.,waB then subatitutBd for mi2Ger,<rn«»-
pitf, ooorr, which, as well as toat of Grae-
duu and Bacdnu^ although quite foreign
fiom the Latin, was gradually adopted as
the ooirect one. The Italians have almost
entirely banished ^ as an independent
letter ; they leaTe it out at the beginning
of words, with few exceptions, because it
is not pronounced ; and instead of phy
they write/. In the Faiglish language, h
'» used, in connenon wiui t, to designate
the lisping sound which the Spamanls
denote by z, and the Greeks \xy 9. The
French and Gennan Ih are pronounced
like simpk t The H of the Greeks was
the long e, but was sometimes used as an
aspirate, as in words in which it precedes c,
asHEKATON. It was formed by the un-
ion of the two breathings, the rough |- aud
the floiooth -|. On Roman coins, inscrip-
tionsi, and in manuscripts, H has a diversi-
ty of meanings, as honestasy hicj harta^
humoy hdbdy Aoro, honoSy HadrianuB,
&c. On modem French coins, it means
die mint of Rochelle. H, among the
Greeks, as a numeral, signified 8 ; in the
Latin of the middle ages, 200, and H with
a dash over it, 900,000. In music, h is
the seventh degree in the diatonic scale,
and the twelfth in the chromatic ; iu the
solmization called b tm, being the seventh
nu^ of c, the pure fifth of €, and of g
the thurd major.

Haaelxm, or Uaerleh ; a city of the
Netheriands, in North Holhmd,on the riv-
er Spearen, about three miles finom the
sea. It communicates with Amsterdam,
Leyden and the lake of Haariem, by seve-
nii navurable canals. It was formerly a
place of snength, but the ramparts are
now converted into public promenades.
A number of canals traverse the town in
diffsrent directions, some of them bor-
dered with trees. Among the public edi-
fices are the skuWunutj an elesant buiki-
ing, containing a valuable collection of
pictures, a mansion or palace of the royal
fiunily, and several chiuritable institutions.
The number of churehes, great and small,
is 15; the principal one is said to be the
laigeet in Holland, and contains a collec-
tion of antiquities of the time of the cru-
sades, and a remariuble organ. The oth-
er objects of interest are, the town libra-
ly, the anatomical theatre, and the botan-
ical garden. The scientific institutions are,
the academy of sciences, founded in 1753,
and the horticulmral society ; to the for-
mer belongs a valuable museum. Here
are several manu&ctures on a small scale.

viz., jewehy, cotton, linen and silk stuA^
thrcMul and ribbons. Haariein has long
been celebrated for its bleaching grounds.
It carries on an extensive trafiic in
flowers, particulariy tulips. Population,
22,000 ; 1 1 miles west of Amsterdam ; Ion.
4° 38' 19" E. ; lat. 52^ 22^ SfV' N.

Habakkuk; a Jewish prophet, who
flouriahed about 600 R C. His prophe-
cy is in an elevated religious, lyrical
style. Lamentations for the feairful de-
vastations of the Chaldeans in JudsBa, and
the approaching downfidlof the kingdom,
consolations and cheering hopes fiar me fu-
ture, the humiliation of the conquerors,
and a new period of happiness for die
Jews, foim the contents of his writingSb
His sentiments and language are greatly
admired. With all the boMneas and fer-
vor of his imagination, his language is
pure, and his verse melodious. His ex-
pressions are characteristic and lively.
llisdenunciationsareteiriUe; his derision
bitter; his consolation cheering. Habak"
kuk seema to mgDsfy HruggUr. He is one
of the 12 minor prophets.

Habeas Corpus. It is one of the first
objects of all civil institutions, to secure to
every member the rights of personal lib-
erty, or, in other words, the control and
duspoflition of his own person, at his own
will and pleasure, in such manner, how-
ever, as not to violate the laws or infiiuge
upon the rights of others. It may seein,
upon the first consideration of the sub-
ject, that this is not an object of the insti-
tutions and lavirs of an anntraiv govern-
ment, since the sovereign, and those rep*
resenting him in an executive or military
capacity, may seize and inq>rison any
one, with or without cause, or upon
grounds more or less important and excu-
sable, according as the government is, in
its principles and in its administntiou,
more or leas arbitrary. But a riight re-
flection will show, diat, even in the most
arbitrary governments, the first object is,
to secure one subject from the seizure of
Ins person, or the violation of his rights,
whether of person or property, by anoth-
er; for in a community of men, where
every member should m left at liberty to
seize upon and imprison any other, if he
had the physical power to do so, there
would be, substantially, and to practical
purposes, no government at all. There
might be an association of men acting un-
der the orders of the prince, and in con-
cert with each other, who should have
more power than anv other association in
the community, ondi who might, accord-
ingly, by the nght of the strongest, seize

1S8

HABEAS CORPUS.

penoD0 and propei^ at their own will
and pleasure; mjt such an aaMxsiation
woula hardly deeerve the name of ci?il
polity or government, which aignifies not
m^^ physical power and superiority of
force, which exists among bnites as well
as men, but a body of laws more or less
extensive, whereby the liberty and ricfats
of the subiectB are secured more or less
effectually, according to the degree of im-
|>rovement and peiiection in the constitu-
tion and kvra or the state. In every gov-
ernment, therefore, whether arbitrary or
free, or occupying any one of the various
degrees in the scale of freedom, one of
the first and most important objects, is the
security of the perran from violence or
detention, not authorized hy law. There
is, then, this essential dimrence, in this
respect, between difierent governments ; —
in those which are aibitrary, the present
wiU of the sovereign, and, accordinciy, of
those representing him in civil andf mili-
tary capacities, is the law: whereas, m
others, the law is a fixed rule, which eve-
ry citizen or subject mav know and con-
form to, if he chooses ; the sovereign and
the magistrates b«ng bound by tlus law
no len than the other members of the so-

n, This fixed law settles, beforehand,
e cases in which any person may be
detained or imprisoned ; and the term
imprimmment, in this application, does
not fligniiy merely shutting up in a gaol,
since me voluotaiy detention of a person
in a private house or in the streete, says
sfar William Blackatone, is an wiprifoii-
metU. The cases, in whjch imprisomnent
is lavirful, being thus ascertained by the
law, the great iMt>vi8ion of magna ckarta
intervenes, namely, <*That no freeman
shall be seized or imprisoned, but by the
judgment of his equals or the law of the
land." The tenn tqwd$ or purs^ here,
has reference to an indictment or trial by
jurv, or other body, of which the office
and functions are equivalent to those of
jurors, as is the case in regard to the house
of lords, in respect to certain parties and
ofiences. This particular mooe of accu-
sation or trial might as well be omitted,
and the rule would then stand, that no
man should be imprisoned but by the law
of the land. It is the law alone that can
imprison, and not the sovereign, or any
representative of the sovereign, whether
the sovereignty resides in one individual,
or a body, or more than one body of men.
This principle constitutes the leading fea-
ture of mofma chariOy and lies at the
foundation of every ftee flovenunent In
order to secure personal liberty, and, at

the same time, to maintain
which requires, in the case of crimes and
some others, the restnint of the person, it
is absolutely essential that the law should
not Mily specify, explicitty, the cases in
which the citizmi may be seized or im-
prisoned, but also provide that he ahaU
not be arrested, or restrained of his liberty,
in any other case vrhatever ; and such is
the law in Enj^and and in all of the U.
States. Nor is this principle confined to
the person, it being no leas the law that a
man's goods, than that his person shall not
be sei^ and detained, otnerwise than by
order of the law. Such bein^ the rules
that lie at the foundation of civil society,
the very important question occurs, How
these rules are to be enforeed ; how is the
law, most efTectually, to guaranty to eve-
ry one of its subjects, the inviolability of
his person and property? The first and
most obvious security is that derived di-
recdy fitrni the law of nature, and notsur-
rendered among the other sacrifices made
by the members of a community to each
other, as a condition precedent to the
formmg of civil society. The law per?
mits every man to defend his person and
proper^, and to repel, by force, any iin-
iawilQ mvasion of either. It will not jus-
ti^ him in using extreme force, and com-
mitting anjy outrageous, disproportionate
or wanton mjurv, in resislinff ana repelling
even an unlawfid injury of his person or
property ; but it will justify him in using
a reasomJi>le degree of force, proportioned
to the injuriousnesB or atrocity of the vio-
lence attempted by the assailing partv.
But the law of nature affords but a feeble
protection, and men unite in communi-
ties, for Ae purpose of obtaining more ef-
fectual dcdfences against wrong, and rqw-
rations for injuries when committed ; and
the very first provirion of the law is to in-
flict punishment for any virrongs and vio-
lence, whereby the public is disturbed,
and also to make reparation to a party in-
jured. If one man unlavirfrilly seizes tlie
property, or imprisons the person of an-
other, be is, by the laws of every commu*
nity, liaUe to make amends in damages.
As for, therefore, as an injury is such that
it can be repaired by a pecuntaiy compen-
sation, and as ftr as the trespasser is able
to make such reparation, the remedy is
complete. But smce trespassers are not
always able to make reparation for inju-
ries, and some injuries are such that pe-
cuniary damages are not an adequate rep-
aratioii, and, also, because the law in-
tends to prevent vmongs, as well as to pro-
vide for punishmenti and compensatioua

HABEAS CORPUS-HACKBERRY.

where they have been committed, it pro*
videe certain prooeasee ibr immediate pre-
Tention, in case of ayiolent and unautnor-
ized invasion of property or person. Of
this character are the processes on com-
plaint for forcible entry on real estate, the
action of replevin in req>ect to goods and
chattels, and the writ de homine repiUgiaav-
do, or writ of haheas corpug, in respect to
the peraon. 'Die writ de hamine rtpkgi'
muh is similar to that of replevin, and is,
in ftct, as its name imports, tAe rqfUvying
of a man. When a man*s person has
been carried out of the country, so that
he cannot be found, then a process takes
place somewhat similar to that adopted
when goods are carried ofi^ so as not to be
replevuible. In the case of the goods, a
process trt wUhemam issues, by which
other goods are taken. So in the case of
the man ; the person ifiiio thus convey-
ed him away, is himself taken in a pro-
cess in wUhtrnam, as a pledge for the res-
toratiou of the person sought to be re-
plevied. This process of replevying a
man is very ancient in the English law ;
forms of the writ beinj^ given by Fitzher-
bert, and also found m the Register of
Writs. But it was not until more than
409 years after the date of nusgna thartOy
that an adequate remedy was adopted,
whereby the great {Mivilege, provided for
in that charter, was efiectually secured.
This security was effected by the kahtat
eorpnt act, passed in the thirty-fiist vear
<^ Charles U, c 2, which has been adopt-
ed, in substance, in all die U. States ; and
many of the state constitutions expressljr
guaranty to the citizens the right to this
writ, as one of the fundamental principles
of thegovemmem; and by the constitu-
tion of the U. Static, the privilege of this
writ is secured, at all times, except in
eases of rebellion or invasion, when the
puMic safety may require its suspension.
The ri(riit is liable to be suspended in
Enj^and in the same cases, it being some-
times necessary to clothe the executive
with an extraordinarv power, as the Ro-
mans were in the habit of choosing a dic-
tator in emeraencies, when the public was
in danger. This, as sir William Black-
atone sajrs, is the sacrifice of the security
of personal liberty for a time, the more
effectually to secure it in fbture. At all
times, when the privilege is not suspend-
ed by law, every citizen has a right to this
writ. It is, however, to no purpose that
the party should be brought before a judge,
on luAeoM eonui, to be immediately re-
manded to prison. The laws, according-
ly, except certain cases ; thus the lawsof

New Y<»k provide, that if a peraon is not
a omivict, or in execution by legal pit)-
cess, or committed for treason or felony,
plamly exp resse d in the warrant, and h&s
not neglected to apply to be released for
two whole terms, he is entitied to tliis writ.
An application may be made to a jud^,
either m court or out of court, for this wnt ;
and if it does not appear that the person
is imprisoned under some of the circum-
stances above-named, or, if it be in some
other state than New York, if it does not
appear to the Judge, that his case comes
under some of the exceptions provided by
the law of the state (and the laws except
only the plainest cases), then it is the ab-
solute duty of the judge to grant the writ,
directed to the gaoler, officer or person
who detains the complainant, oidering
him to brine the prisoner bc^ne him.
The laws of England provide, that, if the
chancellor or any of the 13 jud^ refuses
the writ when the party is entitled to it,
he incurs a very h^vy forfeiture to the
complainant, it is universalhr, in the U.
States, the imperative duty of the judre
to order the complainant to be immedi-
ately brought before him, unless his case
plamly comes within one of the excep-
tions pointed out by the law. The party
being thus brought up, the judge deter-
mines whether he is entitled to be dis-
charipd, absolutely, or to be discharged
on giving a certain hail, or must be re-
manded to prison. If the imprisonment
is wholly unauthorized, the complamant
is discharged; if it be not uiuuithorized,
but is yet for a cause in which the partv
is entiued to be discharged on givinv bail,
the judge orden accordingly. This is
the writ which is justiy denominated the
great bulwark and second magna duaia of
British liberty. And it is no leas the bul-
wark of American than of British liberty ;
for it not only protects the citizen from
unlawful imprisonment, at the suggestion
of the civil officers of the government in
behalf of the public, but also against
groundless arrests at the suit or insti^on
of individuals. There are other writs of
hahea» corpus, but the one we have de-
scribed is always intended when the terms
are used without explanation.

HABrTATiON. (See Domieilj ,^ppendix
to vol. iv, page 613 ; also DweOhg.)

Hachb d' Abmxs (FVendi) ; the battie-
axe, or mace, of the knights.

Hacienda (Spanuh) ; a ferm, singly sit-
uated ; also public revenue.

Hackberrt, or Hoop Ash {cdHs era§^
sifoUa), is a western tree, abundant in the
basin of the Obio and beyond the Missis

190

UACKBERRY— HiEAIA.

flippi, and oocuirioff flometiineB on the
eastern slope of the AllMhaniea» eqiecial-
ly in the basins of the Susquehanna and
Potomac It grows to a great height, but
the thickness A the trunk b not propor-
tional. The leaves^ which are not unlike
those of the mulbeny, are larger than in
the other species of nettle-tree, ovate and
acuminate ; the small white flowers are
succeeded by one-seeded berries, of a
black color, and resembling peas in size and
diape. The wood, cm account of its i^-
ituae to decay, is Httle used, but is said to
make ireiy fine charooaL

Hackxrt, Philip; a distinguished Ger-
man landscape-uunter, bom at Prentzlow,
in the Ukermait, in 1737, died at Flor-
ence, 1806. His four younger brothers were
also distinguished in the arts, three ofthem
in painting, and (me (George) in engray-
ing. In 1766^ Philip Hackert went to
Italy. On his return fimn Naples (in
1770) to Rome, Catharine, empress of
Russia, employed htm to paint six ^ctures
r^resenting the two battles of Tschesme.
These bid the foundation of his fome.
In order to enable the artist to form aoor-
rect notion of the ez{rfoaion of a vessel,
C4)unt Orioff caused a Russian fiigate to
be blown up in his presence. The singu-
larity of tnis model, many mondn be-
fore spoken of in aH the European pa-
pers, cmtributed not a litde to increase
the fame of the picture. In 1783, he
was presented to Ferdinand, king of Na-
ples, whose foyor be soon gained. In 1786,
he received an iq^pointment in N^les.
When the revolutionaiy wars broke out,
beni^ considered by the royalists as a re-
pubhcan, and by the French as a royal-
ist, he was obliged to retire to Florence,
yrhen he died m 1806. His forte lay in
painting scenes. To originality of com-
position his pictures have no claim. He
was also skiUlil in restoring pictures,
as wpears by lus letter to lord Hamilton,
SuWfuoddlavemieendla pittura (1788).
He communicated fifagments to Gothe, on
landscape painting, who published PK

de$im eignm Ail^»6izm. This work con-
tains anecdotes of king Ferdinand^ such
as bis foimal distribution of pieces of wild
boar's flesh among hisfitvorites, according
to their rank, and other stories of the same
sort, illustratinff the imbecility of the Nea-
politan court, depicted, likewise, in Col-
lingwood's Letters.

Hackmatack; a termapi^ed, in many
parts of the United States, to the Ameri-
can laroh. (See Lardi,)

Hackhkt ; a large and populous village

and parish of England, in Hiddfeflex, two
miles finom Londcm, to which it is ioined
by several new rows and streets* It has
a receptacle for lunatics. St John^s pal-
ace, an ancient house in WelTs street, now
let out in tenements to poor fomilies, is be-
lieved to have been the residence of the
prior of the order of St. John of Jerusa-
lem. In this liarish, south of Seabridge,
are the Temple millsi once belonging to
the knights TemplaiB. Population 23,494.

HACKifET ; a horse kept to let Tfaia
term in Enflaiid is often shortened into
haclt — JhaciuM coach; a coach kept to
let In the Imited Stales, such coaches
are commonly called hadti. Hackney
coaches began first to ply, under this
name, in Ix>ndon, in loS», when they
were twenty in number. (See Coaehts.)

HAnnoGK {raduB d^gis/biut). This fish
appears in su^ shoals ss to cover a tract
of many miles, keeping near the shore.
In stormy weather, they will not take the
bait The fishermen aaseit, that they then
bury themselves in the mud, and thus
shelter themselves till the agitation of
the water has ceased. In proof of this,
they allege that those which are taken
immediately after a stonn are cover-
ed with mud upon the back. The com-
mon size of the haddock is 12 inches. It
has a brown back, a silveiy belly, and a
black lateral line. On each side, about
the middle, is a large Mack spot, tlie prints,
as is superstitiously believed, of the finger
and thumb of St Peter, when be took Uie
tribute money fixMn its mouth ; but, unfor-
tunately, the haddock is not the only fish
thus distinguished. It derives its specific
name fiom eagt^m^ which was anciendy
its common appellation.

HAnEs. iSeePhdo.)

Hamt ; tne title of a Mohanunedan
who peifinms a pilgrimage to Mecca — a
religious act, which every true believer is
directed to perform, at least, once. Hat^
is the name of the celebration which takM
place on the arrival of the caxavana of
pilgrims at Mecca. (For an account of it,
see the article ^^ntfat.) A venr interesting
description of the Aoqf, and the nuniher-
less pilgrims, together with Mecca an4 the
Caaba, is to be found in Burekbanlt's
Travels (2 vols. 4to., London).

HAni^ET, John, vice-prerident of the royal
society of London, who (in 1731) is said
to have invented the reflecting quadrant
The invention is also attributed to Thomas
Godfivy, of Philadelphia. (See Gm^rey.)

Hadkiatic. (See Adriatic,)

H JCMA (from the Greek ^V? blood) ; a
word which appe^v in a great number of

HiEBfA--HAG£DORN.

lai

Beieiitific compoundfl, pttticiilariy in bota*
ay, minenlogy and medicine.

Hj:matic8 (from aifuy Greek, tAe blood) ;
the branch of physiology which treats of
the blood.

HjiMATiTE, Red, and Brown. (SeeJhm,
Ores of.)

Hjbmus, in ancient geography ; a chain
of mountains ninning eastwardly from
the ancient Orbelus to the Pontus Eiud-
nue, and separating MoBsia from Thrace.
It temnnated in a cape on the Blacic sea,
called Hami ExtnrnOj at present Emmt-
ia^ The modem name of the Hiemus
isBtikan» (q. t.) Fable derives this name
fiom Htemus, king of Thrace, who, con-
adering himself equal to Jupiter, was
changed, with his wife, who compared
bersdf to Juno, into this mountain.

HjtifKS, Thaddeus, a Bohemian natu-
ral philosopher and tmvellbr, was invited
by me Spanish government to accompany
Maiaipina on his voyage round the world,
in 17a^. He arrived at Cadiz 34 hours
after the expedition bad set sail He fol-
k>wed it in the next vessel that sailed to
the river Plata, but was wrecked on the
coast of Montevideo. H»nke swam safe
ashore, with his Linneeus and his papers
in his cap ; and, finding that the expedi-
tion had afa^eady set sail, he determined to
seek captain Malaspina in St Jago, by
crossing the Andes. Without any knowl-
edge of the language of the country, and
without any assistance, this courageous
predeoessor of Humboldt surmounted all
obstacles, and succeeded in joining Mala-
spina. Haenke never returned to Europe ;
he died in America, peihape purposely de-
tained. The royal Bohemian nanonal
museum possesses his collections of natu-
ral history. It published at Pnunie, in
1825, Rdiquut Hanktana^ seu Ueserip'
Hona ei Jkones Plantarum fUB in Amervca
MeridL et Boretii^ in huvha Pkilippima el
MarumiB ccUegU Thaddtus H(tnht (with
12 engravings^

Hapf, an antiquated German word,
ngnif^ingthe sea, and also a large bay,
wmch appears in geographical names, as
Curist^-f^. &dtTre,m French, as Hdvre
de Gractj is derived from it ; and kctm, in
tlie Danish, Kxttbenkam (Copenhajgen),
port of merchants, is connected with it ; as
are also the Swedish Aom or Aamn,aignifying
pwi^nB in IWerfncfc^Aom (Frederic's port),
the English havm, and the German hqfen.

Hatiz, or Hafez, Mohammed Schems-
eddin, one of the most celebrated and most
charming poets of Perria, was bom at the
beginning of the 14th century ; studied
theology and law, sciences which, m Mo-

hammedan countriei^ are intinuttely con-
nected with each odier. The surname
Hafiz was given him because he knew the
Koran by heart He preferred independ-
ent poverty, as a dervise, to a life at court,
whither he was often invited by sultan Ah-
med, who earnestly pressed him to visit
Bagdad. He became a sheik, or chief of
a mitemity of dervises, and died, probably
at Shiraz, in 1389, where a sepulchral
monument was erected to him, which
has been often described by travellers;
but, in October, 1895, an earthquake at
Shiraz destroyed, among many other
buildinga^ the monument of Hafiz, to-
gether with that of the celebrated Sadi.
Some idea of his style and sentiments
may be obtained through the medium of
translationB. Sur William Jones publish-
ed translations of two of his odes, which
are extremely beautifbl; besides which,
may be noticed Nott*s Select Odes of Ha-
fiz, translated into English Verse, with the
Original Text (1787, 4to.), and Hindlev's
Persian Lyrics, from the Divan-I-Hanz,
with Paraphrases in Verse and Prose ( 1800,
4to.) The songs of Hafiz were collected
intoadiMm, after his death, which was
published complete (CalcutUi, 1791 J, and
translated into (German bv the celebrated
Orientalist von Hammer (2 vols., Stuttgard,
1812—1815). The poems of Hafiz are
distinguished fer sprightliness and Anoc-
reontic festivity. He is not unfi^qucnt-
ly loud in praise of wine, love and pleas-
ure. Some writers have sought a mystic
meaninff in these verses. Feriaoun,Sururi,
Sadi and others, have attempted to explain
what they supposed to be the hidden sense.

Haoar (u e., the Hranger) ; an Egyptian
slave in Aorahara's house. She was pre-
sented, by her mistress Sarah, to Abraham,
in order that Abraham might not die
without descendants, Sarah herself being
barren. Hagar bore Ishmael ; but Sarah
soon became jealous of her, and treat-
ed her severely. Hagar fled, but after-
wards returned, and, when Sarah bore
Isaac, was sent away by Abraham, whO;
the Bible informs us, had received a di-
vine order to dismiss her. She sufierod
much distress in the desert, but was re-
lieved by an angel, and married her son
to an Egyptian woman. (Getk i, 16, 21.)
Saint Paul makes her the allegorical rep-
resentation of the Israelites, who were de-
prived of any participation in the gospel,
as she with her son did not inherit any
thing from Abraham. ( Gtd, iv. 21^

HAOEDoarr, Frederic von, a Gferman

S>et, native of Hamburg, was bom in 1706.
e received a good Mucadon, and dis-

198

HAGEDOIN^-HAGERSTOWN.

Syed taleiilB for poeoy wheo young;
, becomiDg an orphan at the ase of 14,
he found himBelf dependent on hia own
exertiona for sufqport He, however, con-
tinued fltudying in the aymnaaum at
Hambuig, till 17^ when he removed to
the university at Jena, aa a law student
In 1729, he publiahed a amall collection of
poems; and the same year he went to
London, in the suite of the Danisli ambas-
sador, baron von SoBlenthal, with whom
he resided till 1731. He obtained, in 1733,
the appointment of secretary to the Eng-
lish mctoiy at Hamburg, which placed
him in easy circumstances. It was not
till 1738 that he again appeared before the
public as an author, when he printed the
tirst book of his Fables, which were much
admired. In 1740, he published the Man
of Letters, and, ui 1743, his celebrated
poem On Happiness, which established his
reputation as a moral writer. The second
b<x>k of hia Fables appeared in 1750 ; and
he afterwards produced many lyric pieces
in the style of Prior. He died of dropsy
in 1754. Wieland, in the prefoce to his po-
etical worics, terms him the Gtrman Horace,
HAOXN,Frederic Heniy von der,profe8Bor
in the university of Berlin, was bom Feb.
19, 1780, at Schmiedeberg, in the Uker-
maik. In his 18th year, he went to Halle
to study law, but Woirs lectures won him
over to the belles-lettres, in the study of
which he was still more confirmed by the
turn which German literature received
from Schiller, Gothe, Novalis, Tieck. In
1807, Hacen published, in Berlin, a collec-
tion of old popular soup. On his travels,
he became acquainted with many of the
most eminent literati, and particularly
Eschenburg, who liberaUy permitted him
to make use of his important collections.
In 1808, he published, vnth Biisching,
Gennan Poems of the Middle Ages (1 voK,
4to.); in 1809, Das Buck dor L&hty a col-
lection of old German tales, in prose;
1809^1812, the Mimmmfur alideuMie
Liieratur wnd Kunatj in connexion with
several other literati In 1810, he was
appointed professor of the German lau-
guaffe and literature, at the new university
of Berlin. In 1812, he published, with
B<i8chinff,the Gnmdriss ziur GtschkhU der
aUdeuUdcn Dichtkunst^ and lectured on the
J^tbdungmUcd, In 1811, he was appoint-
ed professor in Breslau. At a later period,
he lectured on the old German and north-
em mythology; but liis most important
work was a new edition of the Hddenlmck.
(q. V.) In 1812, he published a collection
of the songs of the Edda ; and, afterwards,
a body of old northern Sagas ; and, in 1814

—1815^ tratuiatioiis of the ff^BBma and
JViflunga Sam (originally taken from the
Geraoan), and of the Wblkmga Saga. He
then travelled in Italy and the south of
Germany, partlv hi company with pro-
fessor Raumer, the historian. In 1820, he
publislied his 3d edition of the Atbe/im-
gtnUcdL In 1823) he went to Paris, to make
use of the manuscripts of the Manessean
coUdGtion of 140 old German poets. In
1824, he was a«;ain appointed pitifossor at
Berlm. He has published numeiouB
other woriss illustrative of okl Geranan
literature.

HAOEayJoseph; bom about 1750,at Milan,
of a German &inil^ ; a distinguished Orien-
talist, professor of the Oriental languages
in the univenit^ of Pavia. He first dlaSn-
ffuished himself in the hteraiy worid by the
discoverv of the finud of a Sicilian monk,
named VeUa, who had attempted to im-
pose on the court of Paleraao by some
forged documents relative to the histoiy
of Sicily. Hager left Palermo for Eng-
land, where he in vain endeavored to
excite the attention of the public in fiivor
of his researches concerning Chinese lite-
rature. His jMetensions as an OrieiUal
scholar were questioned by doctor Anto-
nio Montucd, an Italian resident in that
country, who was enmred in similar pur-
suits. Hager published an Explanation
of the elementaiy Characters of the Chi-
nese, with an Analysis of their ^mbols
and Hieroglyphics (London, 1801, folio)|
and a Dissertation on the newly-discov-
ered Babylonian Inscriptions (1^1, 4to.).
He then went to Pans, where he pro-
duced the following works: ibe Monu-
ment of Yu, the most ancient Inscription
in China (1802, folio) ; a Description of the
Chinese Medals in the imperial Cabinet
of France (1805» 4to.); the Chinese Pan-
theon, or a Comparison of the religious
Rites of the Greeks widi those of the Chi-
nese (1806) 4to.). From Paris Hager re-
moved to Milan, where he publi^ed, in
Italian, lUustradons of an Onental Zodiac,
preserved in the Cabinet of Medals at
Paris, and which was discovered near the
Site of ancient Babylon (1812, folio). In
his ^Imtere, he intended to show that the
Turks were formerly coimected with tlie
Chinese. His Observations on the Re-
semblance between the Language of die
Russians and that of the Romans (Milan,
18171 is full of hypodieses. Julius Klap-
roth has shown that HagePs works, though
they have great merit, c^nuUn gross mis-
takes. He died at Milan, June 27, 1820.

Hagerstown; a post-town of Main-
land, and capital of the county of Wash-

HAGEBSTOWN— HAHNEMANN.

13B

iogtoD, OD Antietam cr^^ 69 milee N. W.
of WadiingUMi, 71 W. by N. of Baltimore ;
populatioii, in 1890, 2690. (For the jpopu-
iatioD in 1890, see Omied SUOa.) It is a
pleasant and flourishiDg town, regulaily
laid out and well built, a great part of the
houses being of brick or stone. It is situ-
ated in a ferale and well cultivated tract
of country, which is one of the best dis-
tricts in the U. States for raising wheat
The town contains a court-house, a iail, a
/ town-house, a masonic hall, an academy,
and five houses of pubUc worship, for
German Lutheians, German Calvinists,
Episcopalians, Roman Catholics, and
Methodists, one each.

Haoaai ; one of the minor prophets,
who, immediately after the return of the
Jews from exile, urged the rebuilding of
the temple, as a condition of the divine
Uessiug for the new state. (Exra v. 12 ;
vi 4.) He therefore lived in the time of
Darius Hystaspes, Ezra and Zacharias.
Some critics have thought that the writ-
higs now bearing his name are only sum-
maries of his works, because, they say,
they allow a poverty of ideas and imagina-
tion. Hie best modem edition of Haggai
is in Rosenmuller's Sehd. in Vet. TuLj
p. 7, voL iv, where the fonncr commenta-
ries are also to be found.

HAOioeaAPHA (<ix<o(, holy). The Jews
divide the Old Testament into three parts :
1. the law, which comprehends the five
books of Moses; 2. the prophets; and,
3. the writings termed by them Cetubmj
and by the Greeks Hagiographic^ whence
the word has been intrwluced mto the
English language. The CetMm comfM^
hended the bw>ks of Psalms^ Proverbs,
Job, Daniel, Ezra, Neheraiah, Chronicles,
Ruth, Lamentations, Ecclesiastes, and
Esther. The Hagiogreqiha were distin-
guished from the propAiecies, because the
matter contained in them was not re-
ceived by the way of ptrophecy, but simply
by direction of the Spirit.

Hague, the (Gennan, Haag; Dutch,
Grtttfenhage]\ a beautiful town in South
HoUand, 10 mile0 S. S. W. Leyden, and
30 S. W. Amsterdam, and nearly 3 from
the sei^coast It yields to few cities in
Europe in the beauor of its streets, the
atatelmefls of its buildingB, and the pleas-
antness of its situation. The principal
streets of the Hague are wide, straight and
handsome. There are here six squares
and a fine park, all of which form pleas-
ant promenades. Of the pubhc buildings,
the old palace is an enormous pile, pre-
sentine specimens of almost eveir species
of architecture. The mansioD of the fiun-
vou TI. 12

ily of Bentinck, that of prince Maurice,
and the new palace begun by William III,
are all deserving of attention. The num-
ber of churches is 14$ and there are
also several charitable institutions. The
ffreatest defect in this pleasant town arises
mm the neglect of the canals, several of
which are stagnant, and emit a disagree-
able smell, which forms a strange contrast
to the general cloanlinesB of the place.
On the south-east of the Hague, at a dis-
tance of about a mile and a hali^ is the
castle of Ryswick, which eaye its name to
the well known treaty of 16^. The Hague
became, in 1250, the residence of the gov-
ernors or counts of Holland. It sufiSred
greatly in its importance after the erection
of Holland into a kingdom by Bonaparte.
Before the late revolution^ it was, altei^
nately with Brussels, the residence of the
king and place of meeting of the states.
(See Miherkmda.) Population, 44,000.

Hahn, Philip Matthew, a celebrated
mechanical genius, bom in 1739, at
Schunhausen, was fond, when a veiv
younff boy, of making experiments with
sun-iSals. In his 13th year, finding m his
fiither's library an accoimt of the mode of
constructing them, he immediately set
about making one. At the afpe of 17, he
went to the university of Tfibingen, where
he spent his leisure hours in making
sun-oials and speaking-trumpets, grinding
glasses, &c. To leam the construction
of vratchesjhe lived upon bread and water
till he had saved money enough to enable
him to purchase one. He continued his
labon with unremitting assiduity, and
eventually produced works of great in-
genuity ; as, a clock showing the course
of the earth and the other ptenets, as well
as that of the moon and the other satellites,
and their eccentricities ; a calculating ma-
chine ; and many others. He died in 1790.

Hahnemani^ Samuel Christian Frede-
ric, doctor of inediciuo, and counsellor of
the duke of Anhalt-Cothen, was bora
April 10, 1755, at Meissen, in Saxony.
His &ther educated him with much care.
While at the university of Leipsic, Hahne-
mann was obliged to support himself by
translating English medical books, and
thus even provided himself witli means to
continue his medical studies at Vienna.
After a year's residence in this city, he
was appointed physician, librarian and
superintendent of a museum of coins, by
baron von Brflckenthal, governor of Tran-
sylvania. After some years, he returned
to Germany, studied another year in £r-
jangen, and took his degree of doctor of
physic in 1779, on which occasion he de-

194

HAHNEMANN— HAIL.

ibiided a diflBalatkm, Omipeclia 4^cfmim
MoamodkonmL HetfaeDmctnedatMans-
reUy Dessau and Magdebuig. He afier-
waids relinouiabed the practice, and de-
Toted himaelf to chenustiy, and to writing
on medical subjecta. At this time, he con*
eeived the first idea of the mtem which he
afterwards developed. While engaged in
translating Cullen's Materia Medica, he
was dJBHatiHfied with the explanation of
the antipyretic principles in the Peruvian
bariE, given by that celebrated physician,
and he determined to discover, by experi-
ments, on what the power of Uie ban, in
intermittent fevers, depended. He took it,
in considerable quantity, while in perfect
health, and found tliat it produced an
ague omilar to the intermittent marsh
fever. He seized upon this hint of nature
in his practice, which he had again com-
menced in the insane hospital in Geor-
genthal, at Brunswick and Konigslutter,
where, by manjr experiments of the effiscts
of simple medicines on himself and his
femily, he acquired so much knowledge
of their nature, that he effected many
remariuible cures by homoBopathic ap-
plic^ions. The physicians and apotheca-
ries immediate^ began to persecute him,
and, at last, e^ted his removal by au-
thority, on the ground of his having vio-
lated die law fert)idding phvsicians to
furnish themselves the medicines that
they prescribed, which, in his way of pro-
ceeding, was necessaiy. He then prac-
tised in di^rem places in the north of
Germany; and, at Torgau, he wrote his
Orgmum tkr rationdkn Haikunde (Dres-
den, 1810). A dispute was carried on, fer
13 yean, on the merits of his homceo-
pathic system. In Leipac, where he
affam defended a theos, De HdUborUmo
Vderwn (1812), in order to obtain the jviv-
ileses of a doctor in Leipeic, and taught
and practised medicine, with success, fer
11 yean, the excitement respecting his
system became, at length, so great, that
government, yielding to the petition of
tne apothecaries, remmded Hahnemann of
the above-mentioned law, fori>idding phy-
sicians to administer medicines prepared
by themselves — a law quite common in
Germany. He could, therefore, no longer
practise medicine, in that city, acoordrng
to his mtem; and duke Ferdinand of
Anhalt-Cothen offered him an asylum.
In 1821, Hahnemann went to Cothen,
where he now residea He has endeav-
ored to cure the most inveterate and pro-
tracted diseases, during the last^six years,
by a new application of the homoeopathic
remedies; but, for want of a clinical hos-

pital, has not been aUe, properiy, tc
exhibit his system. Hahnemann^ auto-
biographv to 1791 is contained in El-
wert'a ^adtrieMm von danLAen und den
SdurOten Detdickar AfrzU (Hildesheim,
1799). Among his woriu are, DU fetui-
zeidien dar Gate tend VerfUsckimg der ArZ"
nebmttd (Dresden, 1787); Der Coffee m
eemenffirkungeniheip^lQCSy OfhisOr-
^ponon, a 2d and improved edition appeared
m 1819(Dresden), under the title Oiganon
do- HeSOnmst, and, in 1824, the Sd edition
(translated into French, English and Ital-
ian)— IMu ArxneimUuaekre (6 vols., 1811
to 1821, 2d edition, enlaned, Dresden, 1822
etseq. {&w Homaapaihf.f

Hai {sea) ; a Chinese word, ap
in many geographical words ; as, j
(Sand-sea).

Hail appean to be a species of snow,
or snowy rain, which has undergone sev-
eral congelations and superficial meltings,
in its passa^ through different zones of
the atmosphere, some temperate and oth-
en fit>zeii. It is generally formed in sud-
den alternations of the fine season. Hail-
stones are often of considerable dimen-
sions, exceeding sometimes the length of
an inch. They sometimes fiill with a ve-
locity of 70 feet a second, or about 50
miles an hour. Their peat momentum,
arising finom this velocity, rendere them
veiy destructive, particulariy in hot cli-
matea. They not onhr beat down the
crops, and strip trees of^ their leave^ finats
ana branches, but sometimes kill even
laige beasts and men.- The phenomena
att^idingthe fermation and fall of hail are
not well understood. But it is certain
that they are connected with electricity.
This feet we find noticed by Moses, who
relates that **the Lord sent thunder and
hail, and the fire ran along upon the
ground" ( Gen, ix, 23). This has been sup-
posed to account fer the great variations
of temperature to which tne hail has evi-
dently been subjected, in its passage
through the different strata of the atmos-
phere. Artificial hail can be produced by
an electrical apparatus, and volcanic erup>
tions are ofien followed by a fell of hail-
stones of great size. Hail-rods have been
erected, at the suggestion of Volts, in
countries much exposed to the ravages of
hail-storms, on the same principle asligfat-

* in Gennany, there is a mixture beuinff his
name, which is liaed particularly to discover wheth-
er wine cootains lead, as spurious Wines oAen do.
Its composition is as follows : 1 dram of sulphate of
lime, and the same quantity of tartaric acid, are
dissolved in 16 ounces of cold distilled water, well
shaken and corked. AAerpourin^ofrthepure liquid,
1 dram of pore concentrated munatic acid IB added.

HAIL— HAIR.

Ding-iodB. Thejr conriBt of Mty poles,
tipped with metaUic poiiitai and having me-
tallic wixea c<Mnmunieatingwith the earth.
By thus subtracting the superabundant
electricity from clouds, he imagined diat
the fixmaticm of hail might be prevented.
These rods are used in Germany and
Switzerland, but their success is not pro-
portionate to the expectations enterlamed
of them. The violence with which hail
is discharged upon the earth, imder an ob-
lique an^e, and independently of the
wmd, would be explained by Volta's sup-
position, that two electrical clouds are
drawn towards each other in a vertical di-
recti<Mi, and by their shock produce haSL
which, by the law of the compoaidon of
forces, would be projected in the diagonal
of its gravity, and of the result of the di-
rection of the clouds. In Germany, there
are companies which insure against dam-
age by haiL

Hajuluto ; the salutation or accosting of
a ship at a distance, which is usually per-
formed with a speakinff-trumpet ; the first
expression is Hoa, the inip ahomfy to which
she answers Holloa ; then follow the requi-
site questions and replies, &c

Hainaut, or Hjluiault (Htntrgowen
in Dutch, Htnuegau in Gennan); a prov-
ince of the Netherlands, bounded north by
East Flanders and South Brabant, east by
Namur, south and south-west by France,
and north-west hy Vfeefi Flanders ; popu-
lation, 4^,819. It sends eight memb^ns
1o the second chamber of the states gene-
ral; the provincial estates consist of 90
memberB^ Square miles, 1683. It is di^
vided into three districts, — ^Mons, the cap-
ital, Toumay and Charleroy. It is gen-
erally level, with beautiful undulating
plaii^ and a fruitful soiL Grain is abun-
dant, pastures excellent ; minerals, — iron,
lead, marble, but especiallv coal ; in the
eastern part are considerable forests. The
principal lifers are the Scheldt, the Selle,
the Haine, the Sambre and the Dender.
In the time of the French repubtic and
empire, it belonged to the department of
Jemappes. Part of it was formerly under
the Austrian government, and was called
AuAnaa HaSimiU.

Haiu ; the fine, threadlike, more or less
elastic substance, of various form and
color, which constitutes the covering of
die skin, particularly of the class of mam-
malia. It is of a vegetative nature, and
appears also in animals of the lower or-
ders, andf indeed in all animals which
have a distinct epidermis ; therefore in in-
sects. In the crustaceous animals, it some-
times appears in particular places, as the

foet, on the maigiDB ci the sheD, on the
outakleof the jaws, and grows in tuAs.
Hair is most distinctly developed in those
insects— as caterpillarB, spiders, bees,&c —
which have asottskin : in this case, it even
appeara of a featheiy form ; and butteffiies
are covered all over with a coat of woolly
hair, of the most variegated and beautiful
colore. The same variety and brillianGy
are displayed in the feathen of birda^
which may be considerod as analogous to
hair, whilst the two other classes of ani-
mals — ^fishes and reptiles-^ave no hair
whatever. No species of mammalia is
without hair in an adult state, not even the
UtacecL, In quadrupeds, it is of the most
various conformatioo, fifom the finest wool
to the quills of a poreupine or the bristles
of the nog. The haur, which is spread
over almost the whole of the skin, is com-
paratively short and soft. On particular
parts, a longer, thicker and stronger kind
IS found ; as, for instance, the mane, fot-
locks and tail of the horse, the hon^ mane,
the covering of man*s occiput, bis beard,
the b«trd of goats. Thecolorof the hair
generally afibrds an external characteristic
of the species or variety ; but climate, food
and age produce great changes in it The
human body is naturaUy covered with long
hair only on a few parts; yet the parts
which we should generally describe as
destitute of it, produce a fine, short, color-
less, sometimes hardly perceptible hair.
The only places entirely finee uom it are
the palms of the hands and the soles of
the foet; but the body of the msle often
produeee habr like that of the head, on the
breast, diouhlen, arms, &c Each hair
originates in the cellidar membrane of the
skin, from a small cylindrical root, which
is surrounded by a covering, or capsule,
fiunished with vessels and nerves, called
the hvXb. The root is tubular, and con-
tains a clear gelatinous fluid. The pulp
on which the hair is formed, passes
through the bottom of the bulb, in order
to enter the tube of the hair, into which it
penetrates for a short distance, never, in
common haiiS, reaching as far as the ex-
ternal surfiice of the skin. Acconting to
Yauquelin, black hair oonststs o^ I. an
animal matter, which constitutes the
greaterpart; 2. a white concrete oil, m
small quantity; 3. another oil, of a gray-
ish-green color, more abundant than the
former; 4. iron, the state of which in the
hair is uncertain ; 5. a few particles of ox-
ide of manganese ; 6. phoq)liate of Ume ;
7. carbonate of lime, in very small <}uanti-
ty ; 8. silex, in a conspicuous quantity ; 9.
laedy, a considerable quantity of sulphur.

HAIR.

The iame experiments show that red hair
differs from black only in containinff a red
(Ml inatead of a blackish-green ou; and
that white hair difR)iB from both these on-
ly in t^ oil beinff nearly colorleas, and in
containing phospnate of magnesia, which
10 not found in them. The human hair
varies according to age, sex, country and
ether circumstances. The fcBtus has, in
the fifth month, a fine haiiy covering,
which is shed soon afterbirth, and appears
again at the age of puberty. With the
seventh month, the first traces of hair on
the head are visible in the embryo. At
iMrth, an in&nt generally has Ught hair.
It alwavs grows darker and sticer with
age. The same is the case with the eye-
lashes and eyebrows. At the age of pu-
berty, the luur grows in the armpits, &c.,
of both sexes, and on the chin of the
male. At a later period, it begins gradu-
ally to lose its moisttire and pliability, and
finaUy turns gray, or falls out. These ef-
fects are produced by the scan^ supply
of the moisture above mentioned, and a
mortification of the root. But age -is not
the only cause of this change ; dissipa-
tion, grie^ anxiety, sometimes turn the hair
my m a veiy short time. It becins to
fidl out on the top of the head. The hair
of men is stronger and stifier ; that of fe-
males longer (even in a state of natwreL
thicker, and not so liable to be shea.
Blumenbach adopts the following nation-
al differences of nair: — 1. brown or chest-
nut, sometimes approaching yellow, some-
times black, sofl, full, waving ; this is the
hahr of most nations of central Europe ;
3. black, stiff, straight and thin, the hair
of the Mongolian and native American
races; 3. black, soft, curly, thick and full
hair; most of the inhabitants of the South
Sea ifllandB have it ; 4. black, curly wool,
belonging to the negro race. The hair,
with the nails, hoofs, noms, &c., is one of
the lower productions of aumal life.
Hence, in a healthy state, it is insensible,
and the pain whicli we feel when hairs
are puUed out arises fiiom the nerves
which Bunround the root It grows again
after bein^ cut, and, like plants, grows the
more rapidly if the nutritive matter is
drawn to the skin by cutting ; yet, in a
diseased state, and particularly in the dis-
ease called the plica poUmicOj it becomes
sensitive and innamed to a certain degree,
bleeds, and is clotted by a secretion of
lymph, which coagulates into large lumps.
Hair not only serves as a cover or orna-
ment to the body, but exercises an impor-
tant influence on absorption and per-
iq>iration ; where the hair is thick, the per-

spiration is freer. If the root is destroy-
ed, there is no means of reproducing the
hair ; but if it fidls out, without the root
being destroyed, as is often the caae after
nervous feyenf the hair grows out again
of itself If the skin o£ the head is veiy
dry and scurvy, mollifying means will t»
of service ; strengthening ointments
should be applied, m case the skin is
weak. This shows how littie reason
there is in recommending oils in all cases,
while Uie fiilliue out of the hair may be
owin^ to veiy jlifierent causes. Though
hair, m a healthy state, grows only on the
external parts of the bc^y, caaes are not
unfiiequent in which it is fonned inside of
the body in diseased parts. How much
the hair differs in its character from the
other parts of the body (being, as we have
said, of a vegetable nature), n strikingly
shown from the circumstance that it con-
tinues to grow after death. As the hair
is a very conspicuous object, and capal>le
of much alteration, the arrangement of it
has always been one of the moat impor-
tant duties of the toilet The comb is one
of those ample and yet useful inventions,
which must have naturally suggested
th«nselves In the eaify periods of our race.
(See Comb.) For some rules respecting the
dressing of the hair, and an account of
some curious customs connected with it,
we refer the reader to the Young Ladies*
Book (London, 1890; Boston and Phila-
delphia, 1831). The ancient Helnews es-
teemed fine hair a great beauty, as several
passages of Scripture ^ow ; and baldness
18 even threatened as a sien of God's an-
ger. (Jbawifc in, 17, 24|. The Mosaic law
gives rules respecting tne hair (third book
of Moses, xix, 27). The Hebrew women
paid very great attention to their hair ;
plaited it, confined it with gold and silver
pins, and adorned it with precious stones.
{baiah iii, 22). The misfortune of Absa-
lom shows that men also vahied lonff fine
hair highly. (2 Sanwdj xiv, 26.) Strong
hair, as many passages show, was consid-
ered a proof^of Eftrength, and means were
used to strengthen it ; it was anointed
with perfumed oiL According to Jose-
phus, tlie body-guard of Solomon had
their hair powdered with gold dust, which
j^littered in the sunshine. Artificial hair
18 a very early invention. It was used by
the Greeks and Carthaginians, and par-
ticulariy by the Romans, among whom
artificial tresises were sold. In the time of
Ovid, the Romans imported much blond
hair, wliicli was then fashionable, from
Germany ; and those Roman ladies who
did not wear wigs, and yet wished to con-

HAIR-HAKE.

137

ftnn to the feahkn, powdered their hair
withakind of gold dust The artof dye-
ing hair has been ascribed to Medea, and
waa, of oourae, much pmctised by the
Ronuma (For more inrormadon respect-
ing this point, see fidttiser's Sabma, or
Morning Scenes at the Toilette of a Ro-
man Lady (written in German, and trens-
lated into Ftench)— a woifc of great inter-

Amon^ the FnnkiBb kinga, it was at fint
a priinaeire of the princes of the blood
to wear Uie hair lonff; and, on the de-
thronement of a Prankish prince, his hav
was cut, and he was sort mto a convent
Long hair soon became a privilege of the
noUlit^. Women, in the b^rinning of die
Prankish monarchy, wore thehair loose,
but soon aAer began to wear eras. Prom

) A hair-dresser was called, in Greek, the time of Clovis, the French noUhty

go» Tp»jg» Wot, Tpfyffp^pgyy ; in Latin, cwijfo, wore short hah*; but, as they became le»

• u^ /. ,. .^_._ :. martial, they allowed the hav to grow

k>nger. In the tune of Francis I, kii^ of
France, long hair was worn at court; but
the kinjp^, proud of his wound on the head,
himself wore short hair, in the Italian and
Swiss ftshion, which soon became gene-
ral. In the reign of Louv Xllf, the
ftshion of wearing long hair was revived,
and, as it became destrable to have the
hair curl, the wigs were also restored.
We hasten to close this histonr of ftshion
and folly, lest our article should become as
long as one of the peruques of the begin-
ninff of the last century, or that of the
k>rd gipnoelior of England. It was re-
servedTTor the French revolution, which
overturned so many institutions of the
^good old time," to bring back Europe
to natural and unpowdered ban*. The
French, the leaders in almost all fashions,
are preeminent in hair-dressing. We
may remark that, in the north of Amer-
ica, haur does not grow so full as in
Eiurope, and hence much more artificial
hair is worn. In southern Asia, the men
turn their whole attention to the beard,
and shave the head. But the women cul-
tivate their hair with great care, and dye
and ornament it in eveiy possible way.
The African tribes ffeneruly grease jthehr
hair. (See the tmvefc of Cai]16 and others.)

Hair's Brkadtr ; a measure of length,
being the 48th part of an inch.

Hake {gadus maiueciiul This fish be-
longs to tnat division of the genus which
has two dorsal fin& In shape, it is not
very uidike a pike, and has hence been
termed the na-pikt by the French and
luliana The mouth is larse, and is fur-
nished with double rows of sharp teet)j.
The back part of the tongue, the palate,
and the throat, are also armed with sharp
spines or teeth. Hakes are very abundant
in particular situations on the Lish coast ;
but, after appearing for a number of years,
they seem to take a dislike to their accus-
tomed haunts, and seek others. This is
not peculiar to the hake, as the herring
and various other fish are in the habit of
relinquishing their stations for a conoder-
able time, and then reiqppearing. Natu-

the fomaje havr-dreaser, oma-
frtx. Cireular pins of sUver have been
found in Hereulaneum, which served to
keep together the dififerent rows of cuiis
ananged all round the head; dus being,
amonff the Roman ladies, the most gene-
ral ftsiuon ; and the higher the hair could
be towered up, the better ; though they ako
w«e the S^partan knot behind (for a well-
formed head, a veiy ^pncefid and beoominff
dreas). They likewise wore hancing curu
on the nde. Fashion also regulated the
dress of the hair of the men, in the later
times of Rome. It was cut, for the first
time, when a boy had attained his seventh
year, and the second time when he was
fourteen years old. On the introduction
of Chrisdanily, the aposdes and fothers
of the church preachei against the pre-
vailing foshion of dressing the hair. It
became more common for men to cut the
hair short, at least it was considered more
proper; hence the clergy soon wore the
nair quite short, and afterwards even
shaved their heads in part (See TVn-
l) But even the excommunications

fulminated in the middle ages against long
hair and the extravagant ornamenting of
ii, could not put a stop to the custom. It
must be remembered that, among the an-
cient Greeks and Romans, cutting the hair
was a great dishonor. Hence prisoners
of war, and daves who had committed
any offence, had their heads shaved or
hmr cut. With the Lombards, it was a
punishment for theft under a certain small
sum ; and, according to the old law of the
Saxons (SachseMpitf^ for stealing three
shillings in the day time. Hence 3ie for-
mer expression in Gepnan^, jurisdiction
of Ae Mn and hmr, ihat is, jurisdiction
over minor ofifences, the highest pun-
ishment of which was flogging and
cutting the hair; and jwisduhon qftiie
nedt and handy ibst is, jurisdiction over
aggravated offences, with the right to
punish by death. The ancient Gauls
wore their hair short, but the Franks k)ng,
and combed back, or in a knot behind : the
magistrates wore it on the top in a tuft, as
North American Indmns still do.
12 •

]d8

HAKE— HALDENWANG.

FflJjsts have not given any flatiaftctoiy ex-
planation of thiB singularity in the migra-
tion of fiflh. It may, in some instances,
be occasioned by the close pursuit of an
unufloal number of predatoiy fish, to
avoid the voiaci^ of which, they may be
driven upon shores that they were formerty
unaccustomed to frequent ; or a deficiency
of their usual food mav force them to
abandon a residence where they could
no longer be supported.

Hakim ; a Turkish word, originaUy sig-
nifyinff sage^ phSosophar^ and then, v«ry
naturally, a pkysicianj as medicine and
natural ptiiloeophy, among all nations in a
low degree of civilization, ane the same.
Hakim hoM is the physician of the sul-
tan, diat is to say, the chief of the physi-
cians, always a Turit; whilst the true phy-
sicians in the seragho under him are west-
em Europeans, (Seeks and Jews. Under
Achmet I, there were 21 physicians in the
seraglio, besides 40 Jews. How well a
Chiutian physician is received in the
Tujkish empire, in comparison with other
infidels, may be seen from the llp^els in
that country ; for instance, in Madden's.

HAKI.UTT, Richard, one of the earliest
English coUectors of v<y^ages and mari-
time journals, was bom m 1553. He en-
tered Christ-church colle^ Oxford, and
became so eminent for bis acquaintance
with cosmography, that he was appointed'
public lecturer on that science. In 1582,
be published a small Ck>Uection of Voy-
ages and Discoveries, which formed the
basb of a subsequent work, on a larger
scale. About 15o4, he went to Paris, and
staid there five years. After his return
home, he vras chosen, by air Walter Ra-
leigh, a member of the corporation of
counsellois, assistants and adventurers, to
whom he asenj^ned his patent for the pros-
ecution of discoveries in America. In
consequence of this appointment, he pre-
pared for the press his collection of The
prindpal Navications, Vcmijges and Dis-
coveries of the Engiisb mtion, made by
8ea, or over Land, vrithin the Compass of
these 1500 Years. The first volume, in
folio, was published in 1589, and the third
and last in 1600. Besides narratives of
nearfy 290 vovages, these volumes com-
prise patents, lettezs, instractions and oth-
er documents, not readily to be found else-
where. He died in 1616, and was inter-
red in Westminster abbey. He published
several other geographical works ; among
them is Virffinia richly valued, by the De-
scription of Florida (London 1609, 4to.].
An edition of his works was published
in London, 180^-1812, 5 vols. 4to. The

manuscript papen of Hakluyt were used
by Purchas. (q. v.)

Halbaro. or Halbert, in the art of
war, a well known wefl4K>n carried by the
secgeants of foot, is a sort of spear, the
ahm of which is about ax feet long. Its
head is amied with a steel point, edged on
both sides ; but, besides this sharp point,
which is in a line with the shaft, there is a
cross piece of steel, flat, and pointed at
both ends, but generally with a cutting-
edge at one extremity, and a bent shaqi
point at the other, so that it serves equally
to cut down or .push with.

Halbe&stadt, a Prussian city, in the

S evince of Saxony and government of
agdeburg, has 14700 mhabitants, and
manufactures cloth, linen and leather. It
was the camtal of the ei-^ievani principal-
ity of Hatberstadt It has 10 churches,
besides the cathedral of St Stephen. It
is a place of great antiquity, and is sup-
posed to have been built by the Chemsci.
The buildings are in the Gothic style, and
of antioue appearance. A remarkable
diet of the German empue v?as held here
in 1134. It is a walled city. Lat. SPSS'
Sy' N. ; Ion. IP 4f E.

Halde, John Baptiste du, a learned
Jesuit, was bom at Paris in 1674. He
was intrusted by his order with the care
of collecting and arrang^ig the letters sent
by the society's missionaries from the va-
rious parts of the world. He was also
secretarv to father Le Telfier, confessor to
Louis XIV. He died in 1743; much es-
teemed for his mildness, piety and patient
industry. He is chiefly known as the ed-
itor of the Ldtrea Mfantea d curieusts,
fiom the 9th to the S6th collection, to
which he vnt>te useful prefaces ; and also
for his compilation entitled Description
Jnatoriaue, giognmhique, et physique, de
VEmptre de laCkmeydde la TarUarU Cfti-
noise (4 vols, folio, Paris, 1735). The lat-
ter work, which, with some retrenchments,
has been translated into English, is deemed
the most complete general account of that
vast empire wnich has appeared in Europe.

Haudenwah o. Christian ; bom May 14,
1770 ; one of the most distinguished livins
engravers of Crerman^. He was obliged,
when a boy, to labor m the vineyarjs and
on the fields of fais father, a surgeon at
Durlacli. After he vras admitted to the
drawing school of his native place, he
madegreat exertions to improve himself.
In 1796, he received an invitation to
Dessau, from the chalcognphic society,
where he remained eight years, devoting
himself to aquatinta) but, at a later peri-
od, he was recalled, by his sovereign^ to

BALDENWANG-^HALE.

Gariflnihe. Since that tune, be has ra-
nged aauatintft, and now woiks only
with the buiin and the etehmg-needle.
In the Mugie M^^oUim are two land-
acapes of Ruisdael and Poufliin, one after
Chuide Lonaine, and one after EbheLoner,
eiupraved by him.

Halb, in the sea lanfpiace, aignifiea putt.

Haij^ air Matthew, an emmeot Engiiah
judce, waa bom at Alderle^, in Gloucee-
tenhiie, in 1609. He receiyed hie early
education under a Puritanical cleigyman,
and afterwards became a student at Hag-
dalen Hal), Oxford, whence he remov^
in his 21st year, to Lincoln's Inn. He is
aaidtobave studied 16 hours daily, ex-
tending his researches to natural pniloso-
pliT, DDMthematics, history and divmity, as
wdl as the sciences more immediately
connected with his profession. He was
called to the bar preyiously to the com-
mencement of the civil war ; and, in the
conflict of parties which took place, his
moderation, accompanied, as it waS| by
penonal integrity, and akill in his profes-
sion, secured him the esteem of both roy-
alists and parliamentarians in his own
time. Imitating Atticus rather than Cato,
he adhered to me triumphant party, and
scrapled not to take the covenant, aiid be-
come a lay-member of the femous eccle-
fliastical assembly at Westminster; yet he
acted as counsel for the aoccbed on the
trials of the earl of Straftbrd, archbishop
Laud, and even of the king himself. In
165S^ he was placed on the committee ap-
pointed to consider of the proprieQr of re-
nmning the law. In 1654, he became a
iudge of the common bench (the former
kimr's bench), in which station he display-
ed firmness of principle sufficient to give
ofkoce to the protector; and, finding he
could not retain his office with honor, he
reftised to preside again on criminal triala
After the deatii of Oliver Cromwell, he
refused a new comnussion from his son
and sucoesBor. He was a member of the
parliament which restored Charles II, and
he was one of the members most active
in peasinff the act of indenmi^. In No-
vember, 1660, ho was knighted, and made
chief baron of the court of exchequer.
He presided at the condemnation of aome
persons arraigned for witchcraft, at Buiy
St Edmund's, in 1664, and was tiie last
Engiiah judge who sanctioned the convic-
tion of culprits for that imaginary crime.
He was raised to the chief-iusticeship of
the king's bench in 1671, where he sat till
1676, towards the end of which year he
died. After his death appeared his His-
toiy of the Pleas of the Crown, The Ju-

risdiction of the Lords^ Uouse^ and Hie
History of the Common Law of Eng-
land ; of vduch there have been repeated
editicMis, with comments. 0is valuabie
collection of manuacripts relating to his-
toiy and jurisprudence, is preserved in the
lihruy of Lincoln's Inn. Sir Matthew
Hale also wrote several works on seten-
tific and religioua subjects.

Hale, Nathan, an officer in the revohi-
tionary army, was bom in Coventry, Con-
necticut, and was graduated at Yale col-
lege, in 1773; As me contest between the
mother counUj and the colonies was then
waging, he offered his services to the lat-
ter, and obtained a captain's commisaon
in colonel Knowlton's regnment of light
infentiy, which formed Uie van of the
American army. After the retreat of gen-
ial Washington fiom Long Island, by
which it was left in the poosession of the
British, that commander applied to colonel
Knowlton to adopt some means of gain-
ing information concerning the strength,
situation and fiiture movements of theen-
emyi|^Tbe colonel communicated tMs re-
quQBtto captain Hale, who immediately
volunteered bis services ; and, conqnering
his repugnance to assume a character for-
eign to his nafUre, in the hope of being
useful to his count^, passed in disguise to
Long Island, examined every part of the
Brituh army, and obtained all the re-
quisite information. In attempting to re-
turn, however, he was apprehendM, and
brouffht before sir WiUiam Howe, who or-
dered him to be executed, the next mom-
uig, on his acknowledging who he was,
and what was his object, when he found
the proof egjuost him too strong to be
jpainsayed. This sentence (conformable.
It is true, to the laws of war) was carried
into efiect in the most unfeeling manner.
He was refiisod the attendance of a cler-
gyman ; and the letters which he wrote, a
short time before his death, to his mother
and others, were destroyed, in order, as
vrss said by the provost manbal, ** that the
rebels should not know they had a man
in their am^ who could die with so much
firmness." The untimely end of this proni-
isiiw but unfortunate youiig man resem-
bled that of major Andr^ in the ciremn-
stances vriiich led to it; out the celebrity
of the two has been widely diflferent.
The memoiy of the Enf^iahman has re-
ceived eveiy honor, not only in his own
country, but likewise in this; while that of
the marm' to the cause of American lib-
erty hardly survives even here. The mon-
ument of the former stands in Westmin-
ster abbey, amongst those of sages and he-

140

HALE-HAUCARNA8SUS.

roes, whilflt the gmveof the patriot is not
even marked by a stone or an inacriptioD.
Halen, don Juan van, a Spaniard of
Dutch extraction, was bom in the Isle of
Leon^^eb. 16^ 1790. As some interest is
attached to the name of this man from
his havinff been for a time at the head
of the military forces of the insurgents in
the late revolution in Bnissels (1^), we
give the following account of him, extract-
ed fitnn the Narrative of Don Juan van
Helen's Imprisonment in the Dungeons
of the Inquisition at Bladrid, and his Escape
in 1817 and 1818 ; to which are added his
Journey to Russia, his Campaign with the
Army of the Caucasus, and his Return to
Spain in 1821, edited fit>m the orinnal
Spanish Manuscript, by the Author of Don
Esteban and Sandoval (London,1828.) For
the entire authenticity of the account we
do not vouch, as the book has in numy parts
the air of a fiction. His fiither was em-
ployed in the Spanish navy ; and before
the subject of the present article had at-
tained ms 16th year, he had served in two
naval expeditions, the Inntnf TrhirhJymi
nated in the batde of Tre&lgar. Tlalen
was made lieutenant, and wounded on
board the flotilla of Malaca. May 2, 1807,
he was wounded again, having taken part
with the people of Madrid against the
French. He then served aninst the
French, was made prisoner n^en Souh
captured Ferrol, and took the oath of sub-
mianon to king Joseph, with whom he
went to France, but was, after some time,
dismissed. In 181S^ when all tlie t/fneMt-
9adoM (q. V.) were invited back to Spain,
he returned ; but, anxious to perform
some service for his country, he dressed
himself as a French officer, and, having
fraudulently obtained a copy of the seal of
marshal Suchet, presented himself succes-
sively before the fortresses of Lerida, Me-
quinenza and Monzon, as an aid-deH»mp
of the marshal, with forged orders to
their commandants to evacuate their posts
immediately. The artifice, strange to say,
succeeded completelv, and Spain recover-
ed three important places without losing a
drop of blcK>d. The French troops were
afterwards taken prisoners on their march.
The Spanish recency appointed van He-
len captain, for navirig ** reconquered the
strong places," &c. van Helen served, in
his new rank, in the Catalonian army, until
the return of Ferdinand VII. When this
periured king violated his solemn promises
to the nation, secret societies were formed,
in order to induce or compel the king to
keep his word. Van Helen became a
member of one of them, but not until he

had been caiuekssly suspeeted and im-
prisoned. In September, 1817, he was
imprisoned a second time, in Murcia, in
the dungeons of the inquiflition» to the
prisons of which society, in Madrid, he
was removed in October. After having
had an audience of the king, he was put
to the torture (which he describes in nis
Narrative, mentioned above), escaped fix>m
the dungeons of the holy office throu^
the kindness and ingenuity of the daugh-
ter of the turnkey, went to France and
Eni^d, and, in 1818, entered the Rus-
sian service as major, in a regiment of
dragoons, which formed part of general
Yermelow^ army, in Georgia, and was
employed to repress the turbulent moun-
taineers on the northern side of the Cau-
casus. But the new revolution having
bn^en out in Spain, the emperor ^ve
orders for Haleni immediate dismission ;
he returned to Spain, and, on the entrance
of the French army, fled to the U. States. In
the late revolution of Belgium, he received
a command in the independent troope;
but, for reasons unknown to us, he was
afterwards airested.

Hales, Alexander de; sumamed the
imfragahU doctor ; an English ecclesiafltic,
celebrSied among the controversialistB of
the 13th century. He studied at the uni-
versities of Oxford and Paris, in which
ktter city he died in 1345.

Half Mark ; a noble, or six shillings
and eight pence.

Half Moon, in fortification; an out-
work composed of two frees, fiMming a
salient angle, whose gorge is in form of a
halfnuxm.

Half Pikx; a defensive weapon, com-
posed of an iron spike, fixed on an ashen
staff. Its use is to repel the assault of
boarders in a maimer similar to the de-
fence of the charged bayonet among in-
fontiy; hence it is fiequentl^ termed a
boardi$tg pike. It takes tne epithet of half
from its having a much shorter staff than
the whole pike.

Halibut. (QeeHoUbuL)

Halicaritassus ; the capital of Caria,
in Asia Minor, and the residence of the
Carian kiuAs. It was once an important
oommerciaT city. The present name is
Bodrun or Budron. It lies opposite the
island of Stanchio. Queen Artemisia
erected here the celebrated mausoleum
in honor of her husband, king MausoluB;
HalicamasBus was the native place of
Herodotus, Dionysius the historian, and
Dionysius the musician (who wrote on
music in the time of Adrian); also of the
poets HecatBus and Callimaehua For a

HAUCA&NASSUS— HALL.

141

on of its chamung situation, see
the TraoeU t^ffte Younger Anackams,

Halifax ; a ci^,and the capital of No-
va Scotia, on Chebucto bay. The harbor
of Hali&x is one of the best in America;
a thoosand ships may ride in it in safety.
It is in lat 44'' 4(y N., and Ion. 63» 4(K W.
from Greenwich. It is easy of access at
all seasons of the year. Its len^ from
N. to S. is about 16 miles, and it termi-
nates in a beautiful sheet of water, called
Bedford Basiu, within which are ten
square miles of good anchorage. The
haibor is well forafied, and has an ex-
tensive dock-yard. The city of HaMuc is
situated on the western side of the hartM>r,
on the declivity of a commanding hill,
whose summit is 256 feet above the level
of the sea. There are eiffht streets run-
ning through the body of the town, and
these are mtersected by fifteen odhen.
The town and suburtisare upwards of two
miles long, and the aenend breadth is
about half a mile. Halifax was first set-
tled by a colony under the command of
the honorable Edward Comwallis. in
1749. In 1790, it contained 4000 inhab-
itants ; in 1828, the number of houses was
1580, and the population 14,439. At the
same period, there were two Episcopal
churches, a large and splendid Catholic
chi^l, two meeting-houses for Presbyte-
rians, one for Meth^Usts, two for Baptists,
and one for Sandemanians. The most
important of the government establish-
ments is the dock-yard. It has a high
wall on the side towards the town, and
contains very commodious buildinj^ for
the residence of the officers and their ser-
vants, besides stores, ware-houses and
woik-ahopa. The province-building is an
elegant eoifioe, and contains the various
provincial offices, and apartments fer the
council, house of assembly, and superior
court There are several other public
buUdings of good construction; but, in
general, the luge buildings of the ci^ are
of fireestone, and are not designed for
splendor. Dalhousie college was estab-
lished in 1820, but has not gone into ope-
ration. There are several good schools,
but education is less attended to than in
most of the cities of the U. States. There
are no periodicals published, nor are any
European or Amenean books reprinted at
Halifax. The only publications in Nova
Scotia are the newspapers, of which
there were, in 1828, six at Halifax and
one at Picton. (See Haliburton's Accomd
of Xam ScoUoj Hatifax, 1829.)
Halifax, lord. (See MontagueJ
Hau*, Lyman, whose name is affixed to

the declaration of independence, was bom
in Connecticut, aboot the year 1731, and,
after receiving a classical education, eom-
menced the soidy of medicine. In 1752;
he removed to South Carolina, and, in the
same year, to Sudbuiy, in the district of
Medwav, in Georgia, where he practised
his prorassion until the commencement of
the revolutionaiy troubles. In July, 1774,
he was sent, as representative of the pari^
of St John, to a geneinl meetinj^ of the
republican party in Georgia, which was
held at Savannah. The proceedings of
the meeting were of too temporizing a
nature to ^ease the ardor of the inhab-
itants of that parish, and they, in conse-
quence, separated themselves from the
other parishes of the colony, and, March 21,
1775, elected doctor HaU their delegate to
the ffeneral congress, asMmUed at Phila-
delfmia. Mav 13, he was admitted to a
seat in the house, though he was not
allowed a vote when the sentiments of the
body were taken by colonies, as he could
only be ccmsidered the representative of a
emaU^rtion of a provinee. But in June
of the same year, tne convention of Geor-
gia having, at length, acceded to the gen-
eral confederacy, its representation was
rendered complete by the election of four
other delegates. The names of but two
of his colleagues, however, appear in con-
junction with doctor Hall's on the decla-
ration, the remaining two being absent.
The last time doctor HaU apMared in
congress was in 1780. In 178^ he was
chosen governor of the stale of Georgia,
and, afto' his retirement from pubfic fife,
settied in Burked county, where he died
in the 60th ^ear of his age. He posKSsed
a strong mmd and a placid di^MMrition.
He made great sacrifices, both of comfort
and property, in his countryV service.
When die British took poeseesion of Geor-
gia, his estate was connscated.

Hall, Robert, was bom at Amsby, Lei-
cestershire, in August, 1764. He is the
son of the reverend Robert Hall, a Bap-
tist nunister of Amsby. His father eany
remarked his precocity of talent, and ol^
served to a fnend, that, at ^ nine years, he
fully comprehended the reasoning in the
profoundly argumentative treatises of J<xi-
athan Edwards on the will and afiectionB.''
In 1773, he was placed under the instruc-
tion of tiie eccentric, yet learned and pious
JohnRyland of Northampton. At about
15 years of age, he became a student in
the B(4>tist coUege at Bristol. On reach-
ing his 18th year, Mr. Hall entered king's
coUege, Aberdeen, having obtained an ex-
hibitian. Here he commenced his ac«

148

HALL— HALLE.

qiMimtmice with air JameB MaiekiBtosb,
who was his feUow student After leeeW**
ing his second degree, he was chosen ss
coUeBgue with doctor Evans, in the min-
istiy at Bristol, and adjunct professor in
the institution. Mr, Hall soon became
followed and admired by a class of hear-
ers whose approbation misht well be val-
ued by sny man. His public services were
crowded to excess. But, in the midst of
his popularity, a daik cloud arose, which
threatened to defrnve the Christian world
of a bright ornament ; his friends trembled
as they witnessed the most unequivocal
symptoms of a disordered mind. After
connnement from public Ufe, and a long
course of judicious treatment, his lofty
mind regamed its liberty and power. In
1791, Mr. Hall removed to Cambridge, and
became successor to the extraordinaiy
Robert Robinson. He soon became cele-
brated as a writer, by his publication of a
pamphlet entitled Christianity not incon-
sistent with the Love of Freedom. This
was shortly after followed by his Apology
for the Freedom of the Press, wMbh re-
mains, to the present day, a standard work.
Dugald Stewart deemed it the finest speci-
men of English compomtion extant at the
time when it appeared. But his Sermon
upon Modem InfideU^ established his
ftune as a divine. In 18(B, Mr. Hall^ mind
again received a shock, which required his
f£endonment of puli»t labors. On recov-
ering fiK>m his malady, he became psstor
of the church at Leicester. His mmistry
in that populous town was equally suc-
cessful Here Mr. Hall, for 20 years,
exercised his talents for the good of an af-
fectionate people ; but, in 1^5, the church
at Broadmead, Bristol, which had enjoyed
his earliest labors, liavinc lost their pastor,
the learned and venerable doctor Ryland,
president of the college, invited him to la-
Dor amongst them ; and, in 1896, Mr. Hall
removed to Bristol, where his popularity
IS as great as it has been in other places.
Benevolence and humility are the promi-
nent features of his moral character. The
late doctor Parr was his intimate fiiend,
and left him a valuable and flattering lega-
cy. He says of him, in his last will and
testament, **Mr. Hall has, Uke Jeremy
Taylor, the eloquence of an orator, the fan-
cy of a poet, the subtletjr of a schoolman,
me protoundnesB of a philosopher, and the
piety of a saint** Mr. Hall*s voice is fee-
ole, but verv distinct; as he proceeds, it
trembles under bis energy. The plainest
and least labored of his discourses are not
without delicate imagenr and the most fe-
licitous turns of expression. He expatiates

on the prophecies with a kindfed sfnift ;
he often conducts his audience to the top
of the <* delectable mountains,'' to quote
John Bunyan, where thev can see fix>m
aftr the gates of the eternal city- He seems
at home among the marvellous revelations
of St John, and, while he dwells upon
them, he leads his hearer breathless through
ever-varying scenes of mystery, far more
dorious and surprising than the wildest of
Oriental febles. He stops where they
most deare he shoukl proceed, — ^when he
has just disclosed the dawnings of the in-
most gloiy to their enraptured minds ; and
leaves them full of imaginations of things
not made with hands, — of joys too ravim-
inff for similes.

Halle; a Prussian city, province of
Saxony, on the right bank of the Saak,
with 2152 houses, and 23^ inhabitants ;
lat 5P 2y 5" N.; Ion. 11° 58^ 10" E.
Halle is first mentioned in 806, viiien
Charlemagne erected a castle here against
the Vandals. The name is derived fitim
the salt-woiks of this city, among the most
ancient of Germany, and producmff at
present fixnn 14,000 to 16,000 tons of salt
annually. These works are still called,
by way of eminence, die HaUe.* The
counttT around Halle is very fertile, and
agriculture is flourishing; there are also
many coal mines. But this city is partic-
ulariv famous for her university, founded
by Frederic I, king of Prussia, and open-
ed in 1094 ; hence called the FVedaie unt-
venitf. The great elector of Brandenburg
had founded an academ;^ in 1668, which,
in 1694, was changed into a university,
when Thomasius came hither from Leip-
sic, followed by a number of students.
A series of distinguished professors, and
the liberal provisions of government, have
raised this univereir^ to the rank of one
of the fint in Europe, in almost all branch-
es ; for instance, Meckel, Reil, J. A. Wolfi^
Vater, Gesenius, Tholuck, Wesscheider,
Pfefl^ &c. Napoleon suppressed the uni-
venity, after the battle of Jena, in 1806.
Af%OT the peace of Ulsit, it was reestab-
liriied under the kingdom of Westphalia,
and received also professors from the uni-
versities of Rintehi and Helrost&dt, then
abolished ; but the number of students nev-
er exceeded 900 or 400. In 1813, many
students having left Halle to join the Prus-
sian troops. Napoleon again abolished the
university, and measures were already
taken for canying the order into effect
which were interrupted bjr the battle of
Leipsie. A Prussian ordinance of April

* There are also places in Suabia, the T^toI,
BrabaBt, called HaiUf from salt-works.

HALLE— HALLER.

143

ISy 1815^ ndted |be untveni^ of Wk-
tembecg (quite near to HaUe) with that of
HaDe. Tm institiitioii thus formed now
beers the name of the UnUed Dredaie uni-
vem^i^eUU'fftUemberg. The univer-
oty Imub aiDce that tune advanced rapidhr.
In 1628, there were 1385 students. In
1824, there were 760 students of theology.
Hie theological fiusuhy has six ordinwy
and four eztraordmary professon. The
litouy of the university contains 50,000
volumes, with a collection of coins, engrav-
ings, &c. HaUe was, for a kHig time, the
seat of a theolory wUch adher^ strictly to
title views and dogmas of the first reform-
ers, or, if it deviated from them at all, in-
clined rather to mysticism, but has lately
become the chief seat of rationalism in
Geimany ,{nincipa]ly through Gesenius and
Wegscheider. The Prussian government
has ordered an inquiry into the tenets of
these professors, which will most probably
lead to nothin|; decisive. (See the articles
Ihmki^i hutUutian, and CVwufem.)

HAiiLE, or Hall, Edward; an Endish
chronicler, whose woifcs rank with those
of Holingdied and Stow. He was a na-
tive of London, and was a lawyer by (mo-
fesrion, having attained the rank of a ser-
ieant, and the office of a judge in the sher-
iflHs court He had a seat in the house of
commons, and was a zealous Catholic,
tliou^ he lived at the period of the reforma-
tion. His death took place in 1547. Halle's
Chronicle was publislied in 1548, by Rich-
ard Chfufton, who is reported to have writ-
ten the latter part of it The woric is cu-
rious, as affi>raing delineations of the man-
ners, dress and customs of the age.

Hallein, a town of the Austrian em-
pire, in Salzburg, containing 600 houses
and 6000 inhabitants, on the Salza, at tlie
foot of the Dfiirenberg, has important salt
works. The sak is here, as in the neigh-
boring Berchtesgaden (q. v.), obtained
fiom brine. About 90,00u tons are made
annually. Pins are made here in great
quantity, and the cotton manufiictures in
the vicmity employ 12,000 people.

Hallklcja, or Hallelujah, or Alle-
LUJA (Hebrew) ; praise the Lord ; an ex-
presnon which occun often in die Psalms,
and which was retained when the Bible was
translated into the various languages, prob-
ably on account of its fiill and mte sound,
winch, together with its simple and solemn
meaning, so proper for pubhc religbus ser-
vices, has rendered it a fitvorite of musi-
cal composers. The vowels in it are veiy
favorabfe for a singer. The Roman
Catholic church does not aUow it to be
sung on the Sundays during Lent, on ac-

count of the mournful solemnity of the
season ; and in that church it is not sung
again before Blaster. It is no longer sung
in masses for the dead, asfonneny. The
Greeks made an eariier or more com-
mon use of the Halleluja than the Latin
church. The Jews call the Psahns 113—
117, the Chreat HaOd^ because they cel-
ebrate the particular mercies of Ck>d to-
wards the Jews, and they are sung on the
feast of the Passover, and on the feast of
Tabernacles.

Hallbr, Albert van ; a celebrated Swiss
physician, distinguished not only for his
acquaintance witti the physical sciences,
but also for his general knowledge of lite-
rature, and his taientB as a poet i&s&ther,
Nicholas von Hdler, was an advocate
and citizen of Berne, where the son was
bom in October, 1706. The eariy display
of his abilities was most extraordinary ;
and it is related, that, when but ten yeare
old, he could translate from the Greek;
that he compiled a Chaldee grammar, and
a Greek and Hebrew dictionarv, for his own
use; extracted 2000 biographical articles
fiom Bfwle and Moreri, and gave other
proofi of his devotion to literary studies.
He was sent to a public school after his
fiither's death, in 1721 ; and, in 1723, he
was removed to the house of a physician
at Bienne, for the study of plulosophy
Here he pursued a somewhat desultoi^'
course of reading, and exercised himself in
poetical composition. However, at the
close of the year last mentioned, having
chosen the medical mofession, he went to
the university of T&bingen, where he
studied comparative anatomy; and, in
1725, he removed to Leyden, then the first
medical school in Europe, Boerhaave and
Albinus beiog amonff tne professors. He
took his degree at T%bingen, whither he
went for that purpose, and sustained a
thesis, De Dudu SalwaU Ckuchunxumo
which topic he ftrther pursued, in anothw
thesis, at Leyden, in 1727. That year, he
visited Enghud, and formed an acquaint-
ance with sir Hans Sloane, Cheselden, doc-
tor James Douglas, and other eminent
men. Thence he went to Paris, and dis-
sected under Ledran ; but he was obliged
to leave that metropolis, in consequence
of having caused suojects for dissection to
be brou^t to his lodgings— a piece of in-
discretion which attracted the notice of the
police. He then went to Basil, to study
mathematics under John Bernoulli, con-
tinuing at the same time his anatomical
investigations. Here he first imbibed a
taste for bottmy, and laid the plan of a
work, which he long afler published, on

144

HALLER.

the plants of Switzeriand. Here, too, he
indulged his predilection for poetiy, and
in his twenty-fint year composed his poem
On the Alps, followed by various ethical
epistles and other pieces, which gave him a
reputation in Gemiany. In 17^, HaUer
returned to his native city, and entered on
his professional career as a public lecturer
on anatomy. He did not, however, obtain
among his countiymen that encourage-
ment which his talents deserved, owing,
in some measure, to a satirical spirit, which
occasionally displayed itself in his poetical
compositions. In the summers, he made
botanical excursions in Switzeriand, in the
course of which he also applied himself
to the study of minendogy and zoology.
In 1786, he was invited, 1^ George H, to
accept the professorship of anatomy, sur*
gery and botany, in the newly founded
university of Gdttingen. He accepted this
offer; but his removal to Hanover was
attended with a domestic misfortune, the
death of his wife, whom he had manied
in 1731, and to whom he was much at-
tached. He endeavored to alleviate his
sorrow by dose application to scientific
pursuits. Through his influence, the uni-
versity was enriched with a botanical gar-
den, an anatomical theatre, a school for
midwifery, and a college of sursery. His
TAvn researches in physiology alone, were
enoueh to inunortalize his name. AAer
the death of his master, Boeihaave, in
1738, Haller published his Prelections, with
much original matter, in six volumes,
which appeared successively from 1739
to 1745. But his own discoveries and im-
provements tended to render this woric
obsolete ; and in 1747, appeued the first
edition of his Prima LinMR PhfsidoguB, a
synopsis of his own system of that unpor-
tant branch of medical science, as subse-
quently developed in a lai^^r work. This
is a truly valuable production, which, long
after tiie death of the author, was used as
a text-book in schools of medicine, and
has only been superseded smce the extra-
ordiuaiT scientiflc discoveries of our philo-
sophical contemporaries. In 1752, be first
advanced his ofnnions on the properties of
sensibility and irritability, as existing in die
nervoiw and muscular fibres of animal
bodies ; doctrines which attracted much at-
tention, and excited great controversies in
the medical worid. He was, in 1748,
elected a member of the royal society of
Stockholm, and of that of London in the
following year. He likewise received
the title of physician and counsellor to
king George II, at whose request Francis I
gave him a patent of nobihty, as a baron

of the German empire. After seventeen
years' residence at Gottingen, his disagree-
ments with his colleagues induced bun to
retum, in 1753, to Bme, where his coun-
trymen received him witii the respect due
to his great ftune and talents. He setded
again among them ; and haying been electa
ed a member of the sovereign council of
the state, he soon obtained by lot one of
its magistracies, and entered with zeal on
the duties of a citizen. He did not neglect
his scientific pursuits. He continued to
contribute to the G^ttingen GtUhrU Jhauu
gen (for which he wrote more than 12,000
articles), to hold the presidency of the roy-
al societv of science, and to receive his ac-
ademical pensions. In 1754, he published
at Lausanne, in French ^which he wrote
with fiicili^j, some memons on irritability
and sensibility, and on the motion of the
blood. He was elected, in 1754, one of
the foreign associates of the Paris acad-
emy of sciences. In 1758, he accepted the
appointment of director of the public salt-
works at Bex and Aigle, with a small sala-
ry. He resided six vears at La Roche;
and, in the course of his superintendence,
he introduced many improvements in the
manufiicture of salt. While thus engaged,
he began the publication of his Ekmenta
PlyswIoguB Corvms humani (Lausanne,
1757—1766). His next important literary
labors were the BibUothee<B^ containing
chronological catalogues of works of every
age, country and language, relative to sab-
jects connected with medi<^ science, with
concise analyses, and notices of peculiar
and important facts and opinions. These
libraries of professional knowledge were
published in the following order : SOdioOu-
ca hotamea (1771, 2 vols. 4to.) ; BthUotheea
anaUmdca (1774, 2 vols. 4to.) ; BibUotheca
dnrutgica (1774, 2 vols. 4to.) ; Biblwiheea
MediaruB pracHca (1776—1788, 4 vols.
4to«, the last two volumes having appear-
ed posthumously). On his retum firom La
Roche, he was chosen member of the
chamber of appeal for the German district,
of the councii of finance, and of other
bodies ; and also perpetual assessor of the
council of health. His various duties
as a statesman, a physician and a med-
ical teacher, occupied his attention till hts
death, which happened December 12,
1777. He had previously suftered much
froih illness ; but his last moments were
peculiariy tranquil. Placing his finffer on
his wrist, to observe the motion of the ar-
tery, he suddenly exclaimed to his physi-
cian, ** My friend, I am dying ; my puke
slops f* and he immediately expired. He
is considered one of the greatest German

HALLER.

145

poets of the ISdieentiify. HlB]rfiflo0opli-
icaland deecriptiye poems display depth
of thought ana richness of imagioalion.
He had to contend with a language which
was then imperfect, and to ttie polishing
of which bis writings contributed. Hia
8iy ie is not, however, wholly fituhiesB ; for,
in aiming at concisenesB and ctNnpression,
he Bomeomes becomes obscure. He wrote,
in prose, three philosophico-political ro-
mances, — ^Usong, Aified the Great, and
Fabius and Cato,— designed to exhibit the
respectiye advantam of difierent forms
ofgovenunent; and corresponded, in Ger-
man, Latin, Italian, English and French,
with all parts of Europe. His Letters to
hw Daughter, on the Tmth of the Chris-
lion Reluion, were tnmslated into Enfftish ;
and he also wrote Letters on Free-l%ink-
iog, designed to confhte the reasonings of
French sceptical philosophers, who had
borrowed arguments in ftvor of their spec-
ulations trom his physiological theories.

HixuBR, Chanes L/ms von, a modem
writer, noted for his support of the doc-
trine of divine right, and for liis secret con-
version to the Cathoijc religion, was bom
at Berne, Aug. 7, 1768, and is the son of a
literary man, who died in 1766. In his
LeitndeM,Ck,L.IkHtdUThMfbmaU
prntr ltd tUdarer #on Retour h V^liat
CoAoUquiej Jhfodolique d Romaine (rais,
1821), he caUs himself peu tfufrutf, doni
r^dueationfitt as9a nigligie. When Berae
was changed from an aristocracy into a
democratic republic, he emigrated, and
conceived, ^as it were, a fixed idea," that a
spirinial fraternity was necessary to op-
pose democratic principles. At the same
time, he conceived the idea, ** almost, as he
believed, mspbed by God," tiiat *<Uie lord
was before the vassal, the prince before
die subject" Certainly a divine idea ! This
save origin to his work, ** destined by God
for the restoration of Europe," Rutaura-
tun dor SUMoUunsunsck^ odor Tkeorit dei
nBdibrUd^en-rudUren SSustanduy dor Chi-
m&rt da tSnMSirMivtHichen erdgtgm'
mezi (Restoration of Political Science, or
l!1beory of the natural-social State, opposed
to tlw Clumera of the artificial-civil State ;
W'mlerthur, 1816—1830, 4 vohu). Like
Salmaaus and Mackenzie of old, he de-
icnds the divine right of rulers and of no-
Ucas, and endeavon to overthrow the the-
oiy of the social contract His vfotk has
been, and still is conadered, by the aristo-
crats of Gennany, almost as a code. Yet
we confess, if choose we must, we should
much prefer sir Robert Filmer's theoiy of
divine right to Heller's. Haller's system
I on £e fiction that poweriUl and frr-

VOL. VI. 13

Slighted men appropriated ceHain tracts to
themsdves^ when ttie earth was yet undi-
vided ; and, when lees poweifiil orsagacious
penons came afierwaids to dwell on the
same land, they were obliged to subject
themselves to the rules which the first oc-
cupant prescribed. A divine idea, indeed!
His dii^Kiflition to run a tilt against the
principles which have spmng up out of
the French revolution, led him to Catbol*
icism, in which, as he thinks^ the best se«
curity against democratic pmiciples is to
be found. Von Haller has been a profes-
sor at Berae, a member of the sovereign
council, and has held some other impor*
tant offices. As a member of the council,
he vras obii^ to take an oath of belief
in the doconnes of Protestantism. Since
1806, he says, he has been a Catholic in his
heart In 1818, a French abb^ strenp^th-
ened him in his belief; and, in 1819, pnnce
Adolphus of Mecklenburg-Schwerin ren-
dered him happv, by assuring him that he
might be secretly a Catholic, and receive
dis[jensation finm all the outward observ-
ances of the Catholic system ; nay, that
many ostensible Protestants were in fiict
Catholics. The Catholic bishop of Fri-
burg confirmed this. In 1830, he publish-
ed, under the character of a Protestant,
his work on the Spanish constitution, in
which he praises the inquisition and the
torture* In the same year, the fourth vol-
ume of his Restoration was published, in
which be reconmiends Cathoficism veiy
strongly. October 17, 1820, the bishop
received him at the country seat of a fiiend
into the bosom of the Catholic chureh.
Some rumor of this got abroad, and when
his relations questioned bun concerning it,
he replied by askinff them vdiether the^
had ever seen him observe Catholic ordi-
nances. After Mr. von Haller had taken
the oath prescribed, by Pius IV, to con-
verts, which binds them to use all their
eSbrtB for the propagation of Catholicism,
he renewed (December, 1830) his official
oath as a Protestant This oath also
binds him to act fiuthfiilly towards the
state, and to maintain the Protestant reli-
gion. June 11, 1821, he was expelled from
3ie council as guilty of perjury. There
are, it is true, 15 Catholic members in this
council ; but they, of course, do not take
the oath. Haller then went to France,
where he first wrote fcr the Journal dta
DihaAs. Charies X allowed him to enjoy
the privileges of a citizen. In 1825, the
6th volume of his Restoration appeared.
When the revolution of 1890 broke out,
Haller was an officer under PoUgnac, and
was, of course^ immediately disnuased.

146

HALLEY— HALLOWELL.

Hallet, Edmund, a disdnguished math-
ematician and astronomer, was bom in
London, in 1656, and was sent first to St
Paul's school, and then to Queen's college,
Oxford, of which he became a conmioner
in his 17th year. Before he was 19, he
published A direct and geometrical Meth-
od of finding the Aphelia and Eccentricity
of Planets, which supplied a defect in
the Keplerian theoiy of planetaiy mo-
tion. By some observations on a spot
which appeared on the sun's diisk in July
and Auffust, 1676, he established the cer-
tainty of the motion of the sun round its
own axis. August 21st, the same year,
he fixed the lonsitude of the cape of Good
Hope, by his observation of the occulta-
tion of Mars by the moon. Immediately
after, he went to St Helena, where he
staid till 1678, making observations on the
fixed stars of the southern hemisphere,
which he fbrmed into constellations. In
1679, he published CaUdogut Siellarvm
Austrtdiumj give SuppUmentum Catalogi
T)fckonicty &C., which procured him the
appellation of the southern l)fcho. He
then went to Dautzic to setde a dispute
between the English philosopher Hooke,
and the fiunous Reveuus, relative to the
use of optical insUnments in astronomical
researches, deciding in &vor of the latter.
In 1680, he set off on a continental tour,
and at Paris made acquaintance with Cas-
sini. After visiting Italy, in 1681 he re-
turned to England, and settled at Islington,
where he fitted up an observatory for his
astronomical researches. In 1683, he pub-
lished his Theory of the Variation of the
magnetical Comuoss, in which he endeav-
ors to account lor that phenomenon, by
the supposition of the whole elobeofthe
earth being one great magnet, having four
circulating magnetical poles, or points of
attraction. His theoiy, though unsatisfiic-
toiy, is in^nious. The doctrines of
Kepler relauve to the motions of the plan-
ets next engaged his attention ; and finding
liimself di6ai)pointed in his endeavors to
obtain infonnation on the subject firom
Hooke and sir Christopher Wren, he went
to Cambridge, where Newton, then math-
ematical professor, satisfied all his inqui-
ries. In 1691, he was a candidate for the
Savilian professorsliip of astronomy at Ox-
ford, which was obtained bv doctor David
Gregoiy.. According to Whiston, he lost
tliis ofhce in consequence of his character
as an infidel in religion. For tlie purpose
of niakinj^ further observations relative to
the variation of the compass, he set sail on
a voyage in 1699, and, having traversed
both hemispheres, arrived in England in

September, 1700. The spot at St Helena,
where he erected a tent ror making astro-
nomical observations, is distinguished by
the appellation of HaUey'i Mount. As
the result of his researches^ he published
a general chart, showing at one view the
variation of the compass in all those seas
where the English navigators were ac-
quainted. He was next employed to ob-
serve the course of the tides in the Eng-
lish channel, vrith the longitudes and lat-
itudes of the principal heaidlands ; in con-
sequence of which, he published a large
map of the channel. In 1703, he was
engaged by the emperor of Germany to
survey the coast of Dalmatia ; and| re-
turning to Enriand in November of that
year, he was elected SaviUan professor of
geometry on the death of doctor Wallis ;
and he was also honored with the diploma
of LL. D. He subsequently published a
Latin translation fix>m tlie Arabic of a
treatise of ApoUonius Perseus, a Greek
geometer, to whicli he made additions, to
supply the place of what was lost He
next assisted his colleague, doctor Gre^

g', in preparing for the press Apollomus
n Conic Sections. In 1719, he received
the appointment of astronomer royal at
Greenwich, where he afterwards chiefly
resided, devoting his time to completing
the theory of the motion of the moon,
which, notwithstanding liis age, he pur-
sued with enthusiastic ardor. In 1721, he
began his observations, and, for the space
of 18 years, he scarcely ever misBed tak-
ing a meridian view of the moon, when
the weather was not unfavorable. In
1729, he was chosen a foreign member of
the academy of sciences at Paris. He
died Jan. 14, 1742, at Greenvrich ; and he
W71S interred at the church of Lee, in
Kent. In 1752 appeared his Astronom-
ical Tables, with Precepts, in English
and Latin, for computing the places or the
Sun, Moon, Planets and Comets (4to.]
and he was the author of a va«t multitude
of papers in the Philosophical Transac-
tions. Lalande styles him ''the greatest
astronomer of England."

Hat^/Owell; a post-town in Kenne*
bee county, Maine, on the Kennebec, near
the mouth of the river ; 54 miles N. N. E
of Pcrdand, 168 N. N. E. of Boston ; lat
44<' 14' N.: population in 1820, 2919;
the population in 1890 was over
S90^^. Hallo well is a thriving town, and
has a flourishing commerce. It is situat-
ed in a tract of countiy which has a
str jnff and fertile soil, particularly excel-
leut lor grazing. The exports consist of
bee^ pork, pot and pearl ashes, Indian

HALLOWELL-UAMBUR6.

147

cmn, wheat, lye, oati» butter, hay, lumber,
fish, &c. Loaded vesseb of 150 toiia
may come up the river as far aa the
wharrea.

Halo is an extensive himinoua ring, in-
cluding a circular area, in the centre of
which the sun or moon appears ; whose
liffht, passing through an intervening
ctoud, dves rise to the phenomenon.
Those about the moon are most common.
When the sun or moon is seen through a
thin cloud, a p(»don of the cloud round
die sun or moon appeare lighter than the
rest, and this luminous disc is called a
eoarmuu Coronas are of various sizes, but
they seldom exceed 10^ in diameter ; they
are generally fiundy colored at their edges.
Frequently, when a halo encircles the
moon, a corona surrounds it ParkdiOy or
mock suns, vary considerably in general
appearance : sometimes the sun is encii^
cled by a large halo, in the circumference
of which the mock suns usually appear,
which have often small halos round
them.

Hamabeyads, in mythology ; eight
daughters of Hamadiyaa, by her brother.
They received their names from trees,
and are the same as the Dryads, (q. v.)
They were conceived to inhabit each a
particular tree, vnth which they were
i»m, and widi which thejr perished.
Whoever qwred a tree to their entreaties^
they rewarded, while the destroyer of
groves was sonowtimes severely punished.
(See IHnet&on.)

Hakah ; a place in Syria, fiunous as
Ahulfeda's birthplace. It has, according
to Burekhardt, fiom 60 to 100,000 inhab-
ilants, who live chiefly by manuflicturing
silk and cotton.

Haman ; a name meaning JvU of grace.
(See EMer.)

Hamann, John George, who called him-
self the J^Tmihtm Magian^ was bora at
Konigsbeiig, in 1730, travelled about in
difierent parts of his native country, was
private tutor in several places, received an
office in the customs at K6nis8berg, in
1777, and died at M&nster, m 1788. Be-
tween 1759 and 1784, he published seve-
ral humorous works, whose value the
public did not then appreciate ; but suice
Herder, Jacobi, 05the and Jean Paul
Richter have spoken of them with appro-
bation, they have been republished (L^p-
ac, 1821^1825).

Hamsuro, the most constderable of the
dee cities of Germany, is situated about
80 miks from the mouth of the Elbe,
upon the northern bank of the river,
which is navigable for large vessels as far

as this port The circuit of the city is
about 2^000 feet In the northern part
is a lake, formed by the smaU river Alster,
which runs through the city into the
Elbe, and turns several mills. An arm of
the Elbe enten the city from the east, and
is there divided into a number of canals,
which take various directions, till they
unite, and join the Alster in the southeru
part of the city, where they form a deep
harbor for ships, which communicates with
the main branch of the river. Here is a
lai^ space enclosed by strong piles, where
ships may lie in safety ; it is called itiim-
mahavetu Canals intersect the lower part
of the city in all direcdons,and almost all
the stores are built upon their banks. In
this part' of the ci^, and also in thai
which lies on the east of the Alster, the
streets are, for the most part, narrow and
crooked. Many of those in the western
or New Town, are Inoader and straighter.
The city contains 19 churches, of which
16 are Lutheran, one Catholic, and two
Calvinistic, with some synagogues for
8000 Jews. In the suburb of St George,
there are 1200 houses and a Lutheran
church. The chureh of St Michael, with
its tower, 456 feet in height, built by Son-
nin (q. v.), and intended for astronomical
observations and for experiments in nat-
ural philosophy, was finished in 1786.
This building, and some of the private
houses, are remarkable for their archi-
tecture. The exterion of the exchange
and the council-house are also handsome-
ly ornamented. Amonc the most re-
markable buildings are me bank, the ad-
miralty buildings, the orphan asylum, the
new general hospital, the theatres, the ex-
change, the city and commercial libraries,
Roding's museum, &c. The gymnasium
and the Johanneum are excellent insdtu-
tions for educadon. The building for the
school of navigation, opened in 1826, is
provided with an observatory, and a bo-
tanic garden is also annexed to it In in-
stitutions for the relief of the destitute,
for the sick, and for the education of poor
children, Hamburg is inferior to no city in
Germany. Most of these are under the
duection of private individuals, and they
are principally supported by voluntary
contributions. The constitution of Ham-
burg is aristocratic. The government
consists of four burgomasters arid 24
counsellors, and fills its own vacancies by
an artful combination of chance and of
choice. Three of the burgomasters and
11 of the counsellora are lawyers ; the rest
are merchants. To the senate are attach-
ed four syndics and four secretaries. Cal-

14B

HAMBURG.

TBUBiB are 6xchid6d fiom th6 gOTenunent
of Hamburg, as Luthenma are fioin that
of Bremen. The ordinary public buai-
nen, both internal and external, ia trana-
acted by the senate alone; matters of
more impottanee are regulated in con-
nexion with the citizens poflsessed of a
certain property. These are divided into
five parishes^ each of which sends 36
membera to the assembly or coUege of the
180. From these are chosen the mem-
bers of the council of 60, and again from
theae 15 elders. Each of these colleges
has peculiar privileges. The senate and
the elders alone receive salaries. Justice
is administered by several courts. The
court of appeal of the free cities of the-
Germanic confederacy, is the supreme
tribunal. The puUic revenues were fbr-
meriy consideniole, vrithout the taxes be-
ing omnessive ; but the heavy debts in-
curred by the city, of late years, have
greatly increased me taxes. The citizens
are provided with arms, and accustomed
to military exercises, so aa to form a body
of infant^, cavaliy and artillery, in regu-
lar uniform, amountinff to about 10,000
men. The removal ol" the old fortifica-
tions was conmienced, in 1604, and the
great French works have also been since
demolished. The wall has been turned
into a park. The territoiy of Hambunr
(116 square miles) is bounded by that of
Holstem on the north and west ; the cl^
of Altona, in the tenitoiy of Holstein, la
not two miles distant from the gates of
Hambuig. Towards the east, the Ham-
buiv territfny borden on Lauenburg, and
on the south it is separated by the Eflbe
fiom the territories of Hanover. Some
of the idands in the Elbe belong also, ei-
ther whollv or in part, to Hamburg, to-
gether wiUi the village of Moorbui^ on
die lefl bank. Besides tliis, it has juris-
diction over the bailiwic of Ritzebfittel,
which contains the important town of
Cuxhaven (a. v.), at the mouth of the
Elbe. Hamburg, in common widi Lfl-
beck, also has juriadicdon over the baili-
vric of Berged(»i; with the small town of
the same name, over the Vierlands, and
a few places in Lauenburg. The popu-
lation belonffinff to tlie city of Hambuxig
is about ISS^OOO, and that of the lands
over which it has separate orconcunent
Jurisdiction, about aSwOOO. The city owea
ita foundation to the empennr Cfaarie-
magne, who, in the beginning of the
ninth centuiy, bulk a citadel and a church
on the heights between the Elbe and the
eastern bank of the Abter, as a bulwark
agahist the neighboring pagans. The

ad^rtatioo of the place Ibr commeine and
fiahmr, attracted many aattlen. Although
its barbarous neighbors frequently destroy-
ed this settlement, it vnm aa often reestab-
lished, and the city waa enlarged by new
buildinaa. It became important aa a com-
mercial city in the 12th century, and in
the 13th it waa one of the founders <^the
Hanaeadc league, (q. v.) Even after the
decline of the confederacy, it maintained
its freedom and flourishing conunerce.
The Hanaeatic league with Lfibeck . and
Bremen subsisted till 1810, and haa been
renewed since 1813 and 1814. Until
1500, the city waa confined to the atrip
of land between the Elbe and the eaatem
bank of the Alater. The western bank
was gradually built upon, principally by
exilea from the Nethenanda. Thua arose
the New Town, which waa ao iomortant,
even in the eariy part of the 30 years'
war, that it waa encfoeed within die forti-
fications, and thua gave to the city its
In 161^ " '

preaent extent In 1618, Hambuiip
formally acknowledged a fi-ee city of the
empire, ahfaougfa the archbiahope of Bre-
men continued to maintain poaseasion of
the cathedral, which foil to Sweden at the
peace of Weatphalia, and waa afterwards
ceded, with the duchy of Bremen, to Han-
over. The 30 years' war, amidst the dev-
astations of which Hamburg waa i^pare^,
increaaed the number of its inhabitants,
aa late wars in Europe have also done,
during which many penona emigrated
there from the Rhine, fi»m the Nether-
lands, and from France. Ita oonunerce
increaaed in the aame fwoponion, and
compensated, in a great decree, fbr the
kxB m ita manufiumire8,occaaioiied by the
awakened spirit of industry, and by die
non-importation acta of foreign powers.
Its Bunuvrefineries, manufoctoriea of
whale-oil, ship-yards, and eatabliahments
for printing cotton, are atill important.
The commerce of Hamburg waa mcreae-
ed, particularly, by its direct intercourse
with the U. Statea of America, and bv the
war in the Netheriands and on the Rhine,
by which it obtained a conaiderable ahare
of die commerce of thoae countriea.
Thus, at die beginning of the preaent cen-
tunr, Hamburg waa one of the richest
and most proeperoua of the free cities.
Ita reverses began, in 1803, with the en-
trance of the French into Hanover. They
took possession of RitzebQttel, and cloaed
the Elbe to the English, n^o, in tum,
closely blockaded the mouth of the river.
Hamburg waa now obliged to cany on ita
maritime commerce through T6nningen
and HuBum ; and whatever waa exported

HAMBURG-HAMILTON.

149

thfou^ Hanover aad the Elbe, had to be
accompanied with ceitificatea that it did
not come from British hands, for which
certificates the French authorities asked
a high price. The city was obliged to
advance 2,125,000 marcs banco to the
states of Hanover. After the battle of
LCibeck, Mortier entered Hambuiv(ldth
Nov. 1806), and, although the French
troops evacuated it again after the peace
of Tlisit, and it yet retained, for a few
yeaiB, the shadow of its former indepen-
dence, it was still, during this period, op-
pressed in a thousand ways bv French
commanders. Then came the decrees of
Napoleon, which gave, as ftir as was pos-
sible, a final blow to the commerce and
industiT of Hamburg. At last, Hamburs*
with the whole north-western part of
Germany, was formallv incorporated in
the French empire (I3th Dec, 1810), and
became the capital of the newly created
department of the Mouths of the Elbe.
But at tbe beginning of the year 1813,
the approach of Tettenbom obliged the
French to fly (13th March}. Thisencour-
a^ Hamburg to reestablish its fiee con-
stitution, which had been overthrown, and
to prepare to take a part in the great sttrug-
f^ More than 2000 men enlisted for
military service ; and they were to form a
Hanseatic legion with the bands already
FBdsed by Lfibeck, and those expected
fiom Bremen. In addition to this, a guard
of citizens was formed, at first of volun-
teers, and afterwards by a formal decree
of the coimcil and citizens. About 7000
men were enlisted for this purpose. In
April, a part of the Hanseatic troops was
aMe to take the field, and their cavahy
distinguished itself at Ottersber^ on the
2ad. But the French, being reinforced,
drove back the troops of the allies. Thev
made themselves masters of the left bank
of the Lower Elbe, and. May 12, took
Wilhehnsburg (the castle of Harburg had
voluntarily surrendered to them), and on
the nisht of the 20th, they began to bom-
bard the town. The hope of deliverance,
awakened on the 21st, by tbe entrance of
two Swedish battalions, vanished on the
2Scli, when the Swedes retreated. Mis-
understandings arose between the milita-
ry commanders and the senate, which
sought for the mediation of the Danes.
On the 29th, Tettenbom evacuated the
city ; and Von Hess, the commander of
tbe guard of citizens, dismissed them.
Before a capitulation had been signed, the
Danes ente^ the city as allies of the
French, and, on the evening of the 31 st,
EckmQhl and Vandamme appeared with
13*

a large number of French troopu. Partly
to secure possession of the city, and part-
ly to punish its resistance, the severest
measures were taken. A contribution of
48,000,000 finance was levied upon the cit-
izens, and a part of it was exacted imme-
diately. At the end of the year, 40,000
persona, of every age and sex, had lieen
driven fix)m the city, and exposed to all
the ri^rs of winter. At the same time, the
dwellmpof about 8000 perBons,in the near-
est environs of the ci^, were consumed
by fire with such rapidity, that these poor
people could only escape with their lives.
As the troops which approached Ham-
burg, fust under WaUmeden, and after-
wards under Bennigsen, were too weak to
undertake a siege, the city could not ob-
tain deliverance firom its oppressors, until
after the end of the war m France. In
the latter part of May (1814), the French
troops first left the city, carrying with
them the fruits of their exactions. A rent
of 500,000 firancs wis the trifling compen-
sation which France made to Hamburg,
for its disastrous ravages within and with-
out the city. The Russians, under Ben-
nigsen, entered in the place of the French,
and remained till the end of the year.
Then first was the quiet of Hamburg re-
stored. *

Hambuko Marc CouaANT and Banco.
(See Coin,)

Hamburg Bank. (See Bank^)

HAifiLCAR. (See Hannibal.)

Hamilton, Anthonv, count ; a poet,
courtier and man of lettera in the 17th
century. He was descended fix>m a
younger branch of the fiunily of the dukes
of Hamilton, in Scotland, but was bora in
Ireland about 1646. Hia parents were
Catholics and royalists, in consequence of
which they removed to France, after the
death of Charies I, and young Hamilton
became domiciliated m that country. He,
however, made fi^quent visits to England,
in the reign of Charles II. His sister was
married to count Grammont It is said
that the count, after having paid his ad-
dresses to the lady, and been accepted,
changed his mind, and set off for the con-
tinent Her brother followed him, and,
overtaking him at Dover, asked him if he
had not forgotten something to be done,pre-
viously to his leaving England. " O, yes,"
replied Grammont, <* I forgot to marry your
sister ;" and he immediately returned and
fulfilled his engagement When James
II was obliged to contend for his crown
in Ireland, he gave count Hamilton a reg-
iment of infimtiy, and made him gover-
nor of Limerick ; but, on the ruin of the

HAMILTON.

royal cause, lie accompanied James to
Fiance, where he po^ssed the rest of his
life, iiis wit and talents secured him ad*
mission into the fijrst circles^ where he
was generally esteemed for his agreeable
manners and amiable disposition. He died
at St Germain, in 17*^. Count Hamilton
is chiefly known as an author by his Me-
moirs- of Count Grammont, a uvely and
spirited production, exhibiting a free, and,
in the eeneral outline, a faimful delinea-
tion of the voluptuous coiut of Charles
11. The count's other worics are Poems
and Faiiy Tales, which, as well as the
Memoirs are in French, and display ele-
gance of style and fettiMty of invention.

Hamilton, Elizabeth, a lady of con-
siderable literary attainments, was bom at
Belfbft, in Ireland, 25th July, 1758. Hav-
ing become an orphan at an early age, she
was brought up under the care of her un-
cle, who rended near Stirling, in Scot-
land, and, durmgher residence in'liis &m-
ily, made herself intimately acquainted
with those national peculiarities which she
afterwards delineated so admirably in her
Cottagers of Gienbumie. Besides this
little woik, which attracted much atten-
tion, she wrote the Letters of a Hindoo
Rajah (2 vols. 8vo.) ; the Life of Aerippi-
na (3 vols, Bvo.) ; and Memoirs of JVlodeni
Phuosophers ; works which, under the
popular form of novels, are replete with
sound sense and information. Her otiier
writings are. Hints for Public Schools ;
Popular Essays 12 vols. 8vo.) ; Rules of
the Annuity Funa, &c. ; Exercises in Re-
figious Knowledge (12mo.) ; Letters on the
Formation of the Relijrious and Moral
Principle (2 vols.) ; and On the Elementa-
ry Pnnciples of Education. She was
never married, but enjoyed an extensive
acquaintance, especiafljf amon? the tal-
ented of her own sex, one of whom. Miss
Benger, afler her decease, printed a se-
lection from her corresponaence, with a
pre&torv account of her life and habita
She died July 23, IBld

Hamilton, sir William, K. B., was bom
in Scotland, in 1730. His mother having
been nurse to George HI, that prince, be-
fore his accession to tiie throne, extended
his patronai^ to young Hamilton, and
made him his equeny. In 1764, he re-
ceived the appointment of ambassador to
the court of^ Naples, where lie resided
36 years, returning to England m 1800.
A considerable part of this term being a
season of political repose, he devoted his
leisure to science, making observations on
Vesuvius, iEma, and other volcanic nioun-
toins of the Mediterranean ; and tiie re-

sult of his rssearches is detailed in the
Philo60]^cal Transactions, and in his
Campi PA/^<et, or Observations on the
Volcanoes of the Two Sicifies (2 vols. fol.).
His communications to the royal socie^
were also republished, with notes, in 1772
(8vo.). He drew up an account of the dis-
coveries made in Pompeii, printed in the
fourth volume of the *mhadogi(Lf and
collected a cabinet of antiquities, of
which an account was published b}''
DHancarville. The French revolution

Sive rise to a treaty of alliance between
s Britannic majesty and the kins of the
Two Sicilies, which was signed by air
WUliam HamUton, July 12, 179a By
this treaty, the Neapolitans engaged to
furnish 6000 troops, four ships of the Ime,
8cc^ for war against France in the Medi-^
terranean ; but Ferdinand FV made peace
with the French republic in 1796, without
having taken any active part in the con-
test. On this occasion, and in the subse-
quent events of 1798 and 1799, when the
court emigrated to Sicily, sir l^liam ap-
pears to have acted but*a secondary part
as a political agent, and he was recalled
not long afler. He died in London, April
6, 1803. After his death, his collection of
antique vases was purchased by parlia-
ment for the British museum.

Hashlton, lady (before her marriage,
Emma Lyon or Harte). According to
the memoirs which appeared under her
name in 1815, her molner was a poor ser-
vant woman, who, with her child in her
arms, wandered back, in the year 1761,
from the county of Chester, to her home
in Wales. Her memoirs say, that she went
into service as a children's maid at the age
of 13. At 16, she went to London, and
served a shop-keeper, and soon after be-
came chambermaid to a lady of rank.
The leisure which she here enjoyed, she
devoted to novel reading. She soon ac-
quired a taste jR>r the drama. She studied
me attitudes and motions of the actors,
and exercised herself in representing by
attitudes and gestures the different pas-
sions. She thus laid the foundation of
her extraordinary skill in pantomimic rep-
resentations. Her attention to these stud
ies caused her to lose her place, and she
became a maid servant in a tavern, fre-
quented by actors, musicians, painters,
&c According to her oi^ii memoirs, she
retained her virtue in the midst of this scene
of hcentiousness, and the subsequent sac-
rifice of it she represents as an act of
generosity. A countryman and relation
of hei-s had lieen pressed upon the
Thames. To obtain his release, she ba»-

HAMILTON.

151

tened to the captain ; she pleased him, and
her request was grmted. The captain
loaded her with presents, and had her nat-
ural capacity improved by instruction.
She then found a new admirer, who, with
the consent of her former lover, took her
to his country seat But at the close of
the summer, disgusted by her extrava-
gance, and induced by domestic conaide-
ntiona, he dismissed her. Again thrown
helpless upon the world, she wandered
through the streets of London, in the low-
est stage of degradation. She then met
with a quack doctor, who made her his
goddcBB t^ff^tioy and exhibited her as
such, wrapped in a light veil. Painters,
sculptors and others paid their tribute of
admiration at the shrine of tliis new god-
dess, and among them the celebivtcd
painter Romney, who fell in love with her.
With him she practised all the reserve of
modesty and virtue. But she ensnared
Charles Greville, of the &mily of War-
wick, who had three children by her, and
was on the point of marrying her, when
he was sudoenly disffraced, in 1789, and
deprived of all lus offices. Unable to sup-
port her any longer, he sent her to Napl^
where his uncle, sir William Hamilton,
was ambassador. Sir William was so
charmed with her. that he made an agree-
ment with Greville, to pay his debte, on
condition that he would give up his mistress.
She now behaved with more oecorum ; she
supplied, as far as possible, all the defi-
ciencies in her education, and soon became
remarkable for her social talents. Artists
of aU kinds, who had access to sir Wil-
liam Hamilton's house, be^n to pay their
court to her, and she displayed before
them her skill in attitudes. A piece of
cloth was all she needed to appear as a
daughter of Levi, as a Roman matron, or
as a Helen or an Aspasia. It was she
who invented the seducing shawl dance.
Hamilton, who became each day more
and more enamored of her beauty, at
last determined to marnr her; and their
nuptials were celebrated in London, in
1791. Soon after his return to Naples, he
presented her at court, and she soon took
an active port in the festivals of the queen.
She was the only witness of the secret
suppers of the queen and Acton, and of-
ten slept in the chamber of her royal
fnend. This favor, and her haughtiness,
dbpleased the ladies of the court, who
e6uld not conceal their jealousy ; some of
4iem were, on that account, treated as
criminals of sute. At that time began
Her acquaintance with Nelson, who soon
oecame intimate with the ambassador and

his wife. Througli them the English
r Government receivwl information, tliat the
King of Spain had determined to declare
war. After the victonr of Aboukir, Nel-
son was received in Naples with extrava-
gant rejoiciuES. Lady Hamilton was the
neroine of the crowd, to whom Nelson
iqipeared as a liberating deity. Several
montliB passed in festivities, until die ad-
vance of the French obliged the royal
fiimily, in December, 1798, to escape, witii
Nelson's asfflstance, to Sicily. Some
months after, Italv was delivered by the
victories of the Austrians and the Rus-
sians, and Nelson's fleet returned to the
bay of Naples. Lady Hamilton accom-
panied the slave of her charms ; and it is
asserted, that the violent measures then
used, contrary to the capitulation, were
partly intended as acts of^ vengeance up-
on her personal enemies. When the court
returned to Naples, in 1800, things were
replaced upon their former footing, and
remained so till the English cabinet recal-
led sir William Hamilton. Nelson resign-
ed his command at the same time, and ap-
peared in London with the lady and the
ambassador. But the intimacy between
Nelson and lady Hamilton here attracted
general disapprobation. She was deliver-
ed of a daugnter, which bore the name of
Nelson. Soon after, sir William died,
and his vridow retired to Merton place, a
country seat which Nelson had bou^t for
her. Abandoned to herself after his death,
in 1805, she again gave herself up to her
corrupt inclinations, and was soon reduc-
ed to poverty. Limited to a small pension,
she left England, took her daughter witli
her, and hired a house in the countiy, near
Calais, where she died, in 1815. Lady
Hamilton was without education, but full
of art To her beauty, and her skill in
heightening its effect by the voluptuous at-
titudes of 2ie dancing giri, she owed her
feme and her good fortune. In violation
of aU sensilMlity and decency, die sold or
published the secret letters of Nelson to
ner, and thus threw a merited stain upon
the memory of this hero.

Hamilton. William Gerard ; a states-
man and parliamentary orator of the last
cenmiy, who, on account of the extraor-
dinary imprrasion produced by the first
and almost the only speech he ever de-
livered in the English house of commons,
obtained the appellation of SmgU Speech
Hamilton, He was bom in 1729. In 1754, ,
he obtained a seat in parliament, wlien he
made his memorable speech ; and he was
subsequently made one of the lords of
tradf* and plantations. On the appoint-

HAMILTON.

incot of lord Haliftx to the vice-royalty of
Ireland, Hamilton went thither as his sec-
retary, and was aoeompanied by the cele-
brated Edmund Buike as his own secre-
tary. In the Irish parliament, he sup-
))orted the reputation he had preyiously
cained as an orator, and for many yean
Held the office of chancellor of the ex-
chequer in that kingdom. He relinouish-
ed that post in 17S4, and anient the latter
part of his life in literary retirement His
death took place in 1796. The letten of
Junius have also been attributed to this
gentleman. His woiks were published in

i8oa

Hamilton, Alexander, was borQ in
1757, in the island of Nevis. His father
was a native of England, and his mother
of the island. At the age of 16, he be-
came a student of Columbia college, his
mother having emigrated to New York.
He had not Men in that institution more
than a year, before he gave a brilliant
manifestation of the powers of his mind
in the discussion conceminff the rights of
the colonies. In support of these he pub-
lished several essays, which were manced
by such vigor and maturity of style,
strength of argument, and wisdom and
compass of views, that Mr. Jay, at that
time in the meridian of hfe, was supposed,
at first, to be the author. When it had
become necessary to imsheath the sword,
the ardent spirit of ^oung Hamilton would
no longer allow him to remain in aca-
demic retirement ; and before the age of
19, he entered the American army, with
the rank of captain of artillery. In this
capacity, he soon attracted the attention of
the commander-in-chief, who appointed
him his aid-de-camp, with the rank of
lieutenant-colonel. This occurred in
1777, when he was not more than 20
years of age. From this time, he contin-
ued the inseparable companion of Wash-
ington during the war, and was always
consulted by nim, and fre<}uently by other
eminent public functionaries, on the most
important occasions. He acted as his first
aid-de-camp at the batdes of Brandywine,
Germantown, and Monmouth, and, at the
siege of Yoiktown, he led, at his own re-
quest, the detachment that carried by assault
one of the enemy's outworks, Oct 14, 1781.
In this af&ir, he displayed the most bril-
liant valor. Afier the war, colonel Ham-
ilton, then about 24, commenced the study
of the law, as he had at that time a wi&
and family depending upon him for sup-
port He was soon admitted to the bar.
In 1782, be was chosen a member of con-
gress fiiom the state of New York, where

he quickly acquired the greatest influence
and distinction, and was always a meml>er
and sometimes chairman of those com-
mittees to which were confided such sub-
jects as were deemed of vital interest to
the natioiL The reports which he pre-
pared are remaikable for the correctness
and power which characterize every ef-
fort of his pen. At the end of the session,
he rettunea to the practice of his profes-
sion in the city of New York, and became
eminent at the bar. In 1786, he was chos-
en a member of the legislature of his
state, and was mainly instrumental in pre-
venting a serious collision between Ver-
mont and New York, in conBe4]uence of a
dispute concerning territorial Jurisdiction.
He was elected a delegate of New York
to the convention which was to meet nt
Phihidelphia, in order to form a constitu-
tion for the U. States. As the doore of
the convention were closed dimng its sit-
tings, and its records have never been giv-
en to the world, it is not possible to state
the precise part which he acted in that
body. It is well ascertained, however,
that the country is, at least, as much in-
debted to him for the excellences of tlic
constimtion, as to any other member of
the illustrious assembly. Hamilton and
Madison were the chief oracles and arti-
ficers. After the adoption of the consd-
tiition by the convention, he associated
himself with Mr. Madison and Mr. Jay,
for the purpose of disposing the public to
receive it with fiivor. The essavs which
they wrote with that design, adoressed to
thepeople of New York, during the years
1787 and 1788, are well known under the
name of the Fideraligtj and contributed
powerfiilly to produce the effect for
which they were composed. The larger
portion of them was written by Hamilton,
in 1788, he was a member of the state
convention of New Yoik, which met to
deliberate on the adoption of the fUeral
consdmdon, and it was chiefly in conse-
quence of his efforts that it was accepted.
On the organization of the federal gov-
ernment, in 1789, he was appointed to the
office of secretarv of the treasury. This
was a situation which required the exer-
cise of all the great powera of his mind ;
for the pubUc credit was, at that time, in
the lowest state of depression ; and, as no
statistical accotmt of the country had ever
been attempted, its fiscal resources were
wholly imknown. But before Hamilton
retired fix>m the post, which he did after*
filling it during somewhat more than ^ve
years, he had raised the public credit to
a height altogether unprecedented in the

HAMILTON— HAMMER, VON.

153

history of tbe country, and, by the admira-
ble syetem of finance which he establish-
ed, liad acquired the reputation of one of
the greatest financieis of the age. His
official reports to congress are considered
as masterpieces, and the principles which
he advocated in them stiO continue to ex-
ercise a great influence in the revenue de-
partment of the American government.
Whilst secretary of the treasury, he waS|
ex <^faOy one of the cabinet counsellom
of preadent Washington ; and such was
the confidence reposed by tliat great man
in his integrity and ability, that he rarely
ventured upon any executive act of mo-
ment without his concurrence. He was
one of the principal adviseis of the proc-
lamation of neutrality issued by Wasning-
ton in 1793, in consequence of an attempt
made fay the minister of France to cause
the U. States to take p«ut with his country
in the war then waging between it and
England. This measure he defended in
a series of essays, under the sifnature of
Poei^eiw, which were successful in giving
it popularity. In 1795^ Hamilton resigned
bis ofiUce, and retired to private life, in or-
do" to be better able to support a numer-
ous fiimily by the practice of his profes-
sion. In 17^ however, when an inva-
sion was apprehended fit>m the French,
and a provisional army had been callea
into the field, his public services were again
required. President Adams had ofiered
the chief conmiand of the provisioDal ar-
my to WashinfftoD, who consented to ac-
cept it on conmtion that Hamilton should
be chosen seccnid in command, with the
tide of inspector-generaL TkoB was ac-
cotd]D|Hly none ; and, in a short time, he
succeraed in bringing the organization
and discipline of tlM army to a high de-
gree of excellence. On the denth of
Washington, in 1799, he succeeded, of
eoorae, to tiie chief command. The ti-
tle of lieutenant-general, however, to
wfaidi he was then entitled, was, fiom
some unexplained cause, never conferred
on 1^. When the army was diMiended,
after the ceasatiim of hostilities between
the U. States and France, general Hamil-
ton returned again to the bu-, and contin-
ued to practise, with increased reputation
and success, tmtil 1801 In June of that
year, he received a note ftom colonel
Durr, — between whom and himself a po-
litical had become a personal enmity, — in
wfaJch he was required, in offensive lan-
guage, to acknowledge or disavow certain
expreaaons derogatory to the latter. Tbe
tone of the note was such as to cause him
to refuse to do either and a challenge was

the consequence. liAy 1 1 , tbe parties met
at Hoboken,and on tbe fint fire Hamilton
fell, mortally wounded, on the same tspoft
where, a short time pMviously, his eldest
son had been killed in a duel. He linger-
ed until the afternoon of the following
day, when he expired. The sensation
which this occmrence produced through-
out the U. States, had never been exceed-
ed on this continent Men of all political
parties feh that the nation was deprived
of its greatest ornament. His transcendent
abilities were universally acknowledged;
every citizen was readv to express confi-
dence in his spirit of honor and liis ca-
pacity for public service. Of all the co-
adjutors and advisera of Washington,
Hamilton was, doubde8B,theone in whose
judgment and sagacity he reposed Uie
greatest confidence, whether in the milita-
ry or civil career; and, of all the Ameri-
can statesmen, he dis^riayed the most
comprehensive underatanding and the
most varied aUlity, whether aipplied to
safcgects practical or speculative. A col-
lection of his worics was issued in New
Yoric, in three octavo volumes, some yean
after his death. His style is nervous, lu-
cid and elevated ; he excels in reasoning,
founded on general principles and histor-
ical experience. (General Hamilton was
regarded as the head of the federalists in
the party divinons of the American re-
public. He was accused of having pre-
ferred, in the convention diat fhuned Uie
federal constitutian, a govemmem more
akin to the monarchic^ ; he weakened
the federal party bv denouncing president
Adams, whose administration he disap-
proved, and whose fitness for office he
questioned. But bis general couise, and
his confidentia] corres^mdence, show that
he earnestly desired to preserve the con-
stitution, when it was adopted, and that his
motives were patriotic in his proceedings
towards Mr. Adams. Certain it is, tliat
no man labored more fidtfifuUy, skilfully
and efficiently, m oiganizing and putting
into operation the fectoral government.

Hamilton Collsoe. (See Ginion.\

Haicmsr; a well-known tool used by
mechanics, of which there are various
sorts ; but thejr all consist of an Iron head
fixed crosswise to a handle of wood.
Among blacksmiths, there are tbn hand-
hammer, the uphand sledge, the about
sledge (which is swung over head with
both arms), &c.

Hahmek, in German geographical
names, means yom.

Hammer, Joseph von, one of the first
Orientalists of the present day, interpreter

154

HAMMER, VON— HAMMOCK.

of Oriental langu^g^ ^ the coiiit of Vien-
ua, was bom m 1774, at Gr&tz, in Stiria,
where hia father waa a member of the
provincial counciL In 1787, Hammer,
already distinffuished for his talents, was
placed in the Barbara institution, at Vien-
na, and, in 1788, in the Oriental academy,
founded by prince Kaunitz. He was
afterwards employed as an assistant in
publishing the Arabic, Persian and Turk-
ish lexicon, known as Meninaky's. In
1796, he was appointed secretory to the
baron von Jenisch. About this time, he
first translated a Tuiidah poem on the end
<^ all thinffs, and wrote several poetical

Sieces, which appeared in the German
[ercury. The vear 1798 he spent in
traveUuig and study. In 1799, Hanmier
went to Constantinople, as an interpreter,
in the suite of the learned internuncio,
baron von Herbert, who was sent to open
a communication, for Austria, with Persia
and the East Indies. On the conclusion
of the treaty of El Arish, stipulating the
departure of the French army from Egypt,
he sent Hammer to that country, on a
miaeion coimected with the imperial
consulate. Among the fruits of this jour-
ney are, the Ibis mummies, the coUection
of Arabian letters, the voluminous romance
of chivalry, .^fitar, in the Arabic languaj^e,
a curiosity even in the East, the stone m-
scribed with hieroglyphics, from the cata-
combs of Sakara, and several other valua-
ble articles, preserved in the imperial hbra-
ry. As the treaty was not ratified. Ham-
mer accompanied Hutchinson, sir Sidney
Smith and Jussuf Pacha, as secretary and
interi»eter, in their campaign against Me-
nou. In the fall of 1801, he went throu|^h
Malta and Gibraltar to England ; in April,
1802, he returned to Vienna ; and, in Au-
gust, to Constantinople, as secretary of le-
gation to the Austrian internuncio, baron
von Stfirmer. In 1806, he went, as con-
sular avent, to Moldavia, at the important
crisis of the wax between Russia, Prussia
and France ; remarkable, also, for the
passage of admiral Duckworth through
the Dardanelles. The French minister,
Reinhardt, himself a learned man, at that
time ambassador to the hospodar of Mol-
davia and Walachia, treated the learned
Hammer with great distinction. Since
the sunmier of 1807, Hammer has been
established in Vieima« In 1811, he was
appointed acting imperial counsellor, and
interpreter to the privy court and state
chancery. In October^ 1815, he was ap-
pointed first keeper of the imperial court
library, which office he did not accept
The emperor of Russia bestowed upon

him the order of saint Anne of the second
class, and the king of Denmark the order
of the Danebrog. In 1816, he married the
eldest daughter of Mr. von Hennickstein ;
in 1817, he was made imperial court
counsellor; and, in 1819, a knight of the
order of Leopold. He has published
Sketches of a Journey fix)m Vienna,
through Trieste, to Venice, and through
Tyrol back to Salzburg (1798) ; General
View of the Learning of the East (1804),
according to the great Bibliography of
Hadschi IChalfa; Ancient Alphabeta and
hieroglyphical Characters explained, with
an Account of the Egvptian Priests, their
Classes, Initiation and Sacrifices, in the
Arabic Language, by Ahmed Bc^ Abu-
bekr Ben Waahie, and, in English, by
Joseph Haimner (London^ 1805); the
Tnnnpet of the Holy War, edited by John
MtiUer (1806) ; Resmi Ahmed Effendi's
Reports on his Embasoes to Vienna (1757)
and Berlin (1763, 1809); Topographical
Remarks upon a Journey to the Levant
(1811); Constitution of the Ottoman Em-
pire (1816) ; History of Persian Belles-let-
tres (1818); Remarks on a Journey (1804)
from Constantinople to Brussaand Olym-
pus, and back through Nicsa and Ni-
comedia (1818); Histoiv of the Assassins,
from Oriental Sources (1818). He trans-
lated the three greatest lyric poems of the
nations of Eastern Asia— the Divan of Ha-
fiz, fi!om the Persian, in 1813; the Mote-
nebbi, from the Arabic, in 1823 ; and the
Baki, from the Turkish, in 1825. His
poem, Menmon'e Trilogy (Vienna, 1823),
contains an Indian pastoral, a Persian
opera, and a Turkish comedy. He has
vmtten, also, poems and other contribu-
tions for several periodicals. With the
assistance of count Wenzel Rzewuaky, he
established the excellent journal tvnd-
grubm dta Orients (Mines of the East)
—a raUying point for the Orientalists
of all Europe. His Essay on the In-
fluence of Mohammedanism gained the
prize of the national institute, in 1806.
The 6th volume of his History of the
Ottoman Empire was published in
1830.

Hammock, in naval afi^rs ; a piece of
hempen cloth, six feet long and three feet
wide, gathered together at the two ends by
means of a clew, and slung horizontally
under the deck, forming a receptacle for a
bed. There are about from 14 to 20
inches in breadth allowed between the
decks for every hammock m a ship of
war. In preparing for battle, the ham-
mocks, with their contents, are all finnly
corded, taken upon deck, and fixed in var

HAMMOCK-HABIPDEN SIDNEY COLUSOE.

155

rious nettkifiB, so as to form a barricade
against smaUshot

Hammond, James, an English elegiac
poet, bom in 171Q, receiyed his education
at Westminster school, where he formed an
intinMU^ with lords Cobham, Chesterfield
and Lyttelton,and others afterwards distin-
giiiahed io literature. He was appoint^
equeny to Frederic, prince of Wales ; and,
in 1741, was chosen member of parlia-
ment for Tiuro. He died the following
year, his heahh, if not his intellect, having
been disordered by an unfortunate attach-
ment ro a young lady who rejected his ad-
dmsesL After his death, a small volume
of his Love Elegies was published, with
a pie&ce by lord Chesterfield. They are
ctadhf imitations of Tibullus, and display
a ctdtivated taste and warm imaginatioD.
Hampobn, John, celebrated for his
patriotic opposition to taxation by pre-
rogative, was bom in London, in 1594,
and, at an eariy age, was entered a gentle-
man commoner at Magdalen coUese, Ox-
ford. On leaving the universitv, he took
chambefs in one of tlie inns of cx>urt, in
order to study hw ; but the death of his
fitther patting him in possession of an
ample estate, he indulffed in the usual
career of country gentlemen, until the
aspect of the times, and the natural weight
orhis connexions and character, produosd
greater strictness of conduct, without any
abatement of his cheerfulness and afia-
iHlity. He was cousin-german, by the
mother's side, to Oliver Cromwell. He
entered pariiament in 1626 ; and, althouffh
for some years a unifomi opposer of the
arbitnuy practices in church and state, and
one of those who, in 1637, had engaffed a
ship to carry them to New England,
he acted no very distinguished part
Hume sneers at the motives of this in-
tended emigration, as merely Puritanical ;
bat the conduct of Hampden in regard to
the demand for ship-money, which im-
mediately followed the prohibition to de-
part the kini^dom, forms a conclusive
answer to this insinuatioiL His resist-
ance to that illegal impost (to use the lan-
gnagl of lord Clarendon) made him the
argument of all ton|;ues, especially as it
was after the decinon of the judges in
&vor of the king's right to levy ship-
money, that Hampden refiised to pay it
Being prosecuted in the court of exche-
quer, he himself, aided by counsel, argoed
tiw case against the crown fewyers for 12
days, before the 12 judges ; and, although
it was decided against him by eight of
ihem to four, the victory, as ftr as regard-
ed public opinion, was his. From this

time, he received the title of the patriot
Hampdtn ; and his temper and hie mod-
esty on this great occasion acquired him
as much credit as his courage and perse-
verance. Henceforward he took a prom-
inent part in the great contest between the
crown and the parliament, and was one
of the ^ye members whom the king so
impmdentiy attempted, in person, to seize
in the house of commons. When the
appeal was made to the sword, Hampden
acted with bis usual decision, by accept-
ing the command of a regiment in the
parliamentary army, under the earl of
Essex. Prince Rupert having beaten up
the quarters of the parliamenta^ troops,
near Thame, in Oxfordshire, Hampden
eagerly joined a tew cavalrv that were
ramed in haste, and, in the skirmish that
ensued, received a wound which proved
fotal six days after its infliction, on the
24th June, 1643. It is said that the king
testified his respect for him by sending
his own physician to attend him. His
death was a great subject of rejoicing to
the royal party, and of grief to his own.
That the joy of the former was misplaced,
there is now much reason to believe, as
he would probably have proved a power-
fill check upon the imprincipled ambition
of his relative Oliver. Clarendon sums
up an elaborate character of this eminent
leader, by declaring that, like Catiline,
^ He had a head to contrive, a tongue to
persuade, and a hand to execute, any
mischief." But his character and con-
duct, fit>m first to last, evince his con-
scientiousness, and he has taken his rank
by acclamation on the one side, and tacitly
on the other, high in the list of Enghsh
patriots.

Hampden Sidnet College ; a collese
in Prince Edward county, Virginia, bO
miles S. W. of Richmond, and central to
the southern section of the state. It was
founded in 1775. The corporation con-
sists of 27 men, most of whom are gradu-
ates fit)m other colleges. The president
of the college is tiie professor of mental
philosophy, rhetoric, moral phUoeophy and
natural law. There is a professor of
chemistry and natural philosophy, one of
mathematics, and one of die learned hm-
guages. There are two college build-
ings, which are very commodious. The
number of underffraduates is about 100.
There are four linraries belonging to the
institution and the students, comprising
more than 2000 volumes. The college
year has two sesmons. There is no town
or villa^ in the vicinity of the college.
The Umon Theological seminary, a Prea-

156

HAMPDEN SIDNEY COLLEGE— HANCOCK-

byterian insdtutioii, cataMkhed in 1834, is
frituated near the college, and contained,
in 1890, 35 students.

HAMPsuiRE,HAirTS,SouTHAMPTON ; one
of the southern counties of England, on
the Enfflish channel, including, also, the
Isle of Wight, and, in some points of
jurisdiction, the more distant islands of
Jersey and Guernsey.

Hampshire, New. (See Aet^ liaunp'
ihire,)

Hampstead ; a populous village of
England, in Middlesex. It is simated on
the declivity of a high hill, firom which
there is one of the best and most charming
prospects of the metropolis and the adja-
cent counties. According to tradition,
this was formerly a hunting seat of James
II. PoDulationoftheparJsh,7263. Four
miles N. London. This place is much
resorted to in summer, by the inhabitants
of London.

Hampton Court ; a royal residence,
on the northern bank of the Thames,
about 13 miles from London. It was
erected by cardinal Wolsey, who lived
here magnificently. The palace was said
to be provided with 280 beds for visitors
of rank. Wolsev presented it to Henrv
VIII, in 1536, after which it was much
resorted to by the English kings and
queens, until lately. The palace and
appurtenances are very spacious, and are
described at length in the various Guides
of London. Much of the celebrity of
Hampton court is owing to the gallery of
paintings, in which the famous cartoons of
ilapham are preserved. They are called,
1^ way of excellence, the cartoons* They
are part of a scries of desims made for
tapestry, and were purchased by Charles I.
They are deservedly reckoned among the
finest of Raphael^ works, and cuuse-

Suently among the finest woiks of art
kichardson has given an accurate histor-
ical and critical description of them ; and,
in his opinion, thiey are more fitted to con-
vey a true idea of the genius of Raphael,
than even the loggie of the Vatican. The
tapestries that have been wrought from
them are but shadows of the ori^nals,
yet are preserved with great veneration at
Kome, and only shown on a few days in
the year, in the gallery which leads from
St. Peter's to the Vatican, and never fail
to attract an inmiense crowd. Towards
the end of the ^ear 1797, the French gov-
ernment exhibited, in the Salon du Muah^
several tapestries worked at Brussels,
which were said to have been executed
after the designs of Raphael. The car-
toons at Hampton court have been several

times engn^ved, first by Gribelin, in queea
Anne's rei^i, next by Dorigny, and since
that by several inferior artists, most prob-
ably finom the other engravings. Thev
have also been engraved lately, of a small
size, by Fitder, and of a very large size,
and in a splendid and superior manner,
by Hollo way. One of the most admired
of these cartoons is St Paul preaching at
Athens. (For more information respect-
ing them, and the other valuable pictures
at Hampton court, see BriiUh GaUerits of
^ri (London, 1824). — Hampton, the villace
near Hampton court, contains 3549 inhab-
itants, and is 14 miles distant fiiom Lon-
don.

Hanaper ; an office in chancery, under
the direction of a master, whose deputy
and clerks answer, in some measure, to
thejiscal among the Romans. The clerk
of the hanaper receives all fines due to the
king for seals of charters, patci::?, com-
missions and writs. He attends, also, the
keeper of the seal daily, in term, and at
all umes of sealing, and takes into his cus-
tody all sealed charters, patents, &,c.

Hanau, a province or Hesse-Cassel, in
the Wetteravia, constituted, from 1809 to
1813, part of the grand-duchy of Frank-
fort. It contains 572 square miles, with
88,100 inhabitants, mosdy Protestants, who
formed a religious union in 1818. The
capital is Hanau, on the Kinzig ; lat. 5(P
5V N. ; Ion. 8° 51' E. ; widi 1479 houses
and 9700 inhabitants ; fiimous for the battle
fought here, Oct 30, 1813, between the
Bavarian general Wrede and Napoleon,
on the retreat from Leipsic. The victory-
was, at first, decidedly for the French ;
but the allies clsimed the advantage, be-
cause they had seriously embarrassed the
retreat of Napoleon. Military writers
have reproached general Wrede for his
bad tactics. He was himself severely
wounded. The allies did not advance
before November 2, and therefore could
not have gained any great advantage. Jt
is said that die French lost 15,000 killed
and wounded, and 10,000 prisoners, in the
combats in and near Hanau.

Hancock, John, was bom at Qnincy,
near Boston, and was the son and grand-
son of eminent clergymen, but, having
early lost his fiither, was indebted for his
liberal education to his uncle, a merchant
of great wealth and respectability, who
sent him to Harvard university, where he
was graduated in 1754. He was then
placed in the counting-house of , his beue-
nctor, and not long aiierwaids visited
England, where he was present at the cor-
onation of George HI, as little prescient

HANCOCK— HANDEL.

157

as the monarch himself of the {Mirt which
he was destined to act in relation to the
English government. On the sudden de-
mise of his uncle, in 1764, he succeeded
to his large fortune and extensive business ;
both of which he managed witli great
judgment and munificence. As a mem-
ber of the provincial legislature, he exerted
himself with zeal and resolution against
the royal governor and the British minis-
try, and became so obnoxious to them, in
consequence, that in the proclamation is-
sued by general Gage, after tlie battle of
Lexington, and a few days before that of
Bunker hiU, offering pardon to the rebels^
he and Samuel Adams were specially ex-
cepted, their offences beinff ^ of too flagi-
tious a nature to admit of^an^ other con-
sideration than that of condign punish-
ment.'* This circumstance gave additional
celebrity to these two patriots, between
whom, however, an unfortunate dissension
took place, which produced a temporary
schism in the paity tliey headed, and a
long pergonal estrangement between them-
9elve& In fact, they differed so widely in
their modes of living and general disposi-
tions, that their concurrence in pohtical
measures may be considered one of the
strongest proofs of their patriotism. Han-
cock was a magnificent liver, lavishly
bountiful, and splendidly hospitable ;
Samuel Adams had neither the means nor
the inclination for pursuing a similar
couise. He was smdiously simple and
frugal, and was of an austere, unbending
chiuacter. Hancock was president of the
provincial congress of Massachusetts, un-
til he was sent as a delegate from the
province to the general congress at Phila-
delphia, in 1775. Soon after his arrival
there, he was chosen to succeed Peyton
Randolph as president of that assembly, and
was the first to affix his signature to the dec-
laration of independence. He continued
to fill the chair until the year 1779, when he
was compelled by disease to retire from
congress. He was then elected governor
of Massachusetts, and was annually cho-
sen finom 1780 to 1785. After an interval
of two years, during which Mr. Bowdoin
occupied the post, ne was reelected, and
continued in the office until his death,
Oct 8, 1793, at the age of 56 years. In
the interval, he acted as president of the
convention of the state for the adoption
of the federal constitution, for which he
finally voted. (An able sketch of his char-
acter is contained in Tudor*s Life of Otis.)
The talents of Hancock were rather use-
ful than brilliant. He seldom spoke, but
his knowledge of business, and facility in

VOL. TI. 14

despatching it, together with his keen in-
sight into the characters of men, rendered
hun peculiarly fit for public Ufe. As the
president of a deliberative assembly, he
excelled. His voice was sonorous, his
apprehension of questions quick ; he was
well acquainted with parhamentaiy fonns,
and he inspired respect and confidence
by his attention, impartiality and dignity.
In private life, he was eminent for his hos-
pitality and beneficence. He was a com-
plete gentleman of the old school, both in
nis appearance and manners; dressing
richly, according to the fiishion of the day,
keeping a handsome equipage, and being
distm^ished for politeness and affiibilitf
in social intercourse. When Washington
consulted the legislature of Massachusetts
upon the proprietor of bombarding Boston,
Hancock advised its being done immedi-
ately, if it would benefit the cause, although
nearly his whole property consisted m
houses and other real estate in that town.

Hah D ; a measure of four inches^ or of
the clenched fist In painting and sculp-
ture, it signifies also the style of the artist
Hands are borne in coats of armor, ri^t
and left, expanded or open ; and a blo^^
hand in the centre of an escutcheon, is
the badge of a baronet of Great Britain.

Haudbrkadth ; a measure of three
inches.

HiimcuFFs ; an instrument formed of
two circular pieces of iron, each fixed on
a hinffe on the ends of a verv short iron
bar, wiuch, being locked over the wrists of
a rnalefiu^r, prevents his using his hands.

Handel, properly Haeiidbl, George
Frederic. This celebrated composer was
a native of Halle, in the duchy of Magde-
burg, in Lower Saxony, where his fiuher
practised with considerable reputation as a
physician and surgeon. He was bom
Feb. 24, 1684. His fiither, intending him
for the kw, discouraged, as much as possi-
ble, the strong passion which he evinced
early in life wr the science of music.
But, although he was foii)idden the use of
musical instruments, the young musician
contrived to secrete a small clavichord in
a garret, where he amused himself during
great piut of the night after the rest of the
family had redred, and made such progress
that, on paying a visit to the court of Saxe-
Weissenfels, where his brother held a
subordinate situation in the household, he
played on the church organ with such
power and effect, that the duke, who ac-
cidentaDy wimessed his performance, used
his influence successfully with his father,
to permit him to follow his inclination.
He was accordingly placed under the

HANDEL.

tuiti<m of Zachau, oiganist of the cathednL
«Dd attfie age of nine was so fiff advanced
in the piaelical pan of the science, as to
be able to officiate occaaionally as deputy
to his instnicter, while his theoretical pro-
ficiency enabled him to compose a serrioe,
or Bpintual cantata^ weekly, for neariy
dbree vean. On the death of his fiuher in
17C9^ he repaired to Hambiin, then cele-
brated for the exceDence or its musical
performances, and procured an engage-
ment in the orchestra at the opera mere.
At this period of his life, he commenced
an acquaintance with Matfaeson the com-
poser, which, thou^ untoward in its
commencement ripened into a strict
Aiendship. A nreach of etiquette durins
the performance of the latter's opera of
Cleopatm, on the 4th of December, 1704^
produced a quarrel between the young
men, which terminated in a duel Fortu-
nately, Matheson's sword broke against one
of Handel's buttons, which ended the ren-
counter, and a reconciliation took place.
On the 30th of the same month, Handel
brought out his first opera, Almira, which,
m the February following, was succeeded
by his Nero, Matheson performing the
principal character ineacn. Having at
length saved 200 ducats, — enouffh to war-
nmt him in making a joumev to Italy,— ^e
proceeded in succession to Florence, Ven-
ice, Nq)les and Rome; in which latter
capital he fi>rmed an acquaintance vrith
CoreUi, at the house of caraiE»l OttobonL
On his return to Qermany, in 1710, he en-
tered the service of the elector of Hanover,
afterwards Geor^^ I of England, as chapel-
master ; butyhavmg received presnng invi-
tations from severu of the British nobility
lo visit London, he, with the permission
of that prince, set out for EIngland, where
he arrived in the latter end of 1710. The
flattering reception which he met with in
that country, induced him to break his con-
tinental engagement, in violation of a pos-
itive i>ronuse which he had given to re-
turn within a q[>ecified time ; and he was, in
consequence, on the accession of his royal
patron to the throne of Great Britain, in
much disgrace, till the good offices of baron
KilmanseiKc restored him to favor, and the
penaon of £200, granted him by queen
Arme, was doubled. From 1715 to 1718,
Handel resided with the earl of Burims-
ton, and then quitted that nobleman for
the service of the duke of Chandos,
who entertained him as maegbro di capeQa
to the splendid choir which he had estab-
lished at his seat at Cannons. For the
service of this magnificent chapel, Handel
produced those anthems and organ fugues,

which alone would have been sufficient to
inmiortBlize him. After two years dedi-
cated to this munificent patron, the royal
academy of music was instituted ; and
this great composer, whose fame had now
reached its height, wbb placed at iis head ;
and this, for a snort period, may be consid-
ered as the most splendid era of music in
England. The v^rarmth of his own tem-
per, however, excited by the arrogance
and caprice of Caresdni, Cuzzoni, and oth-
ers of his principal Italian ringers, gave birth
to many violent quarrels ; and, public opin-
ion becoming to a certain extent enlisted in
fiivorof his opponents, his popularity be-

rto wane, and, after ten years' duration,
9peras under his direction were ahon-
donM. In 1741, he brought out his chtf-
tPcnufn, the oratorio of the Messiah. This
sublime comporition was not, however,
duJ^ appreciated at its first representation —
a circumstance which may be accounted
for by the offence which its author had
just given, in refuring to compose for Se-
nesino, who had insulted him. Disgusted
at its receptiou, Handel set out for Ireland
towards the close of the same year, where
it was much more successful ; and when,
after an absence of nine months, which
had turned out most profitably bolh to his
purse and fame, he returned to London,
the hostility afrainsthim had much abated,
and his oratonos were constantly received
at Covent-garden theatre, with the greatest
approbation, by overflowing audiences: the
Messiah, in particular, increased veariy in
reputation. Some time previouslv to his
decease, he was afflicted by total blind-
ness ; but this misfortune had little effect
on his spirits, and he continued not only
to perform in public, but even to compose.
His own air, however, from the oratono of
Sampson, Total Eclipse, is said always to
have affected and agitated him extremely
after this melancholy privation. April ^
175d, he was, as usual, at his post^in the
orchestra, but expired, afler a very short iU-
nesB, on the 13th of the same month. His
habits of life were regular ; and although,
in his contests widi the nobility, he lost at
one time the whole of his savings, amount-
ing to £10,000, yet he afterwaras recover-
ed himself, and left £20,000 at his decease.
His appetites were coarse, his person
laree and ungainly, his manners rough,
and his temper even violent ; but his h^ut
was humane, and his disposition liberal.
His eariy and assiduous attention to his
profession prevented him from acquiring
much literary information, but he sp^e
several modem language His musical
powers can hardly be estimated too high-

HANDELp-HANNIBAL.

1»

ly. lu boldnefls and ttaeaftih of fl^le, and
in the comliiiuition of vigor, spirit and
inyention in his instruniental compoai-
tions, he was never surpaased. His cho-
raaea have a grandeur and sublimity
which have never been equalled. A very
honorable national tribute of applause was
given to Handel in 1785, by a musical
commemoration at Westminster abbey, in
trhich pieces selected exclusively from his
works were performed by a band of 500
instruments, m the presence of the royal
family, and the principal nobility and gentiy
of the three kmgdoms. This oreat com-
poser never married ; he was nuried in
Westminster abbey, where a monument by
Roubilliac is erected to his memoiy.

HANnspiKE ; a wooden bar or lever to
heave roimd the windlass, in order to raise
tiie anchor fiom the bottom ; or for stow-
isiff the anchor^provisionB or cargo, in the
ship's hokL The gtmnar'a kandipike is
riiorterthan the fcmner, and armed with
two claws for manaong the artillery.

Hanoino. (See i/eof^ Puniahment of.)

Hano-tcheou ; a city in China, of the
first rank, capital of Tche-kiang ; 600
miles S.S.W. of Peking ; Ion. 119^46'
£.; lat 90^ Sa N. It isone of the inchest
and largest cities of the empire, called by
the Chinese the terrtstrial paradise, and
said to contain 1,000,000 (sou Is; situated
between the basin of the grand canal and
the river Taen-tanff, which falls into the sea
at the distance of Bttle more than 60 miles
to the eastward. The tide, when full, in-
creases die vridth of this river to about four
rafles, oppofflte to the city. It has nothing
inand in its appearance except its walls.
The houses are low ; none exceed two sto-
ries ; the streets are narrow ; they are
paved with large, smooth flags in the mid-
dle, and with small flat stones on each
ade. The chief streets consist entirely of
diops and warehouses, many not inferior
to the most splendid of the kind in Eu-
rope. A brisk and extensive trade is
carried on in silks, and not a little in
fuis and English broadcloths. The coun-
try around produces great quantities of ex-
cellent nlk ; and the people of the nlace say
that 60,000 persons are employed in niis-
iiiffit in the neighboring towns and YTlingsB.

HijfMER, su- Thomas, was bom in 1676,
and succeeded his uncle in his tide and
the femily estate of Hanmer. In 1713, he
was chosen speaker of the house of com-
mons. This distinguished office he filled
during the remainder of his parliamentary
career. Towards the dose of his life, he
withdrew altogether from public business,
and occupied himself in elegant litera-

ture ; the fruits of which appeared in a
corrected and illustrated edition of Shak-
speare's dramatic works, in six quarto vol-
umes. He died in 1746.

Haitnibajl, or Annibal ; son of Hamil-
carBarcas;bomB.C.247. At the age of
9 years, his father, whom he was eager to
accompany in the war against Spain, made
him swear at the altar eternal hatred to
the Romans. He was a witness of his
fiither's achievements in Spun ; but Ha-
milcar having fallen in battle, in Lusitania,
nine years afterwards, and his son-in-law
Hasdrubal having be^ appointed to suc-
ceed him, Hannibal returned home. At
the age of 23, he returned to the army, at
the request of Hasdrubal The soidien
perceived in him the spirit of Hamilcar,
whom they had so highly esteemed ; and,
in three campaigns, his talents and his
courage were so conspicuous, that the ar-
my, on the murder of^ Hasdrubal, in 931,
conferred on him the chief command bj
acclamation. Faithful to his eariy vow,
the young general of 36 yean soon mani-
fested his determinalion to violate the trea-
ties with Rome, whenever an opportunity
should offer. This object was effected by
the capture of Saguntum, which he took,
with the consent of the Carthaginian sen-
ate, aflcr a siege of eight months. The
Romans, alarmed by the fate of this city,
sent ambassadora to Carthage to demand
that Hannibal should be delivered up. The
demand being refused, they declared war
Hannibal rai^ a powerfbl fiHce, and con-
ceived the bold desijm of attnr'kiny the
Romans in Itahr. After providing far the
security of Africa, and having left his
brother Hasdrubal with an army in Spain,
he began his mareh with 90,000 fbot-eol-
dierB, 40 elephants and 13,000 horsemen,
traversed Gaul in the depth of winter widi
incredible rapidity, and reached the foot
of the Alps. In nine days, he crossed the
summit ofthelitde St Bernard. At least
this is the spot fixed upon by the careful
invesd^ons of general Melville ; but,
according to Reichard, he crossed the
Genevre. Of the troops with which he
had set out, however, he had now only
30,000 foot-soldiere and 6000 horse re-
maining; and these were litde more than
skeletons. But his courage remained unsha-
ken, and his only altemadve was victory or
death. The capture of Turin secured
htm a sui^ly of provisions, and encour-
a^d the people of Cisalpine Gaul to join
him. These auxiliaries would have been
still more numerous, had not Publius
Sdpio approached, by forced marehes. a^
the head of a Roman army, which had

160

HANNIBAL.

knded at Pisa. On the banks of the "H-
cinus the annies engaged, and a charge of
the Nnmidian liorse left Hannibal master
of the field. Scipio avoided a second bat-
Ue, and retreated beyond the Trebia, leav-
ing the stronff town of Clastidiuni in the
enemy's hands. Meanwhile Seuiprouius
arrived with a second army, which held the
Carthaginian leader in check for a while ;
but Hannibal soon provoked his impetuous
adversaty to an engaffemeut, disposed an
ambuscade near the Trebia, and surround-
ed and destroyed the Roman forces. The
Romans lost their camp and 26,000 men.
Hannibal now retired to winter quarters
among his allies, in Cisalpine Gaul ; and, at
the openmg of the next campaign, he
found two new armies awaiting his ap-
proach in the passes of the Apenmiies.
lie determined to engage them separately,
and destroy Flaminius before the arrival
of his colleague. He deceived him, there-
fore, by feigned marches, crossed the
Apennines, and traversed the Clusian
marsh. For four days and iiights the Car-
thaginians were marching tlu*ough w^tcr.
Even Hannibal, who had mounted the
only remaining elephant, saved himself
with difiicult}% and lost mi eye in conse-
quence of an infiammatiou. He had
scarcely regained firm footing, when he
employed every means to compel Flamini-
us to a batde. He wasted the whole coun-
tiy with fire and sword, and feigned a
march to Rome ; but suddenly fonned an
ambush in a narrow pass, siurounded by
almost inaccessible rocks. Flaminius, who
inconsiderately followed him, was imme-
diately attacked ; a bloody engagement
took place near the lake Thrasymenus, in
which Roman valor was overcome by arti-
fice and superior skilL Assailed on every
side, the Roman legions were cut in pieces
without beinff able to display their col-
umns. Enricned with the spoils of the
conquered, Hannibal now armed his sol-
diers in the Roman manner, and marched
into Apulia, spreading terror wherever he
approached. Rome, in consternation, in-
trusted her safety to Fabius Maximus, the
dictator, who determined to exhaust by
delay the strength of the Carthaginians.
He attacked Hannibal with his own weap-
ons, and hung upon him every where
without attempting to overtake him, con-
vinced that the Carthaginians could not
long hold a desolated territory. These
were led by their general into the plauis of
Capua, with the design of separating the
terrified cities fix)m their alliance witii the
Romans, and drawing down Fabius fit>m
the mountains. But he suddenly found

himself in the same toUs in which F]a>
minius had perished. Shut up between
the rocks of FormisB, the sands of Lecster-
num, and impassable marshes, he was in-
debted for his safety to a strataigem. Hav-
ing collected a thousand oxen, and fastened
burning torches to their horns, he drove
tlie flmous animals at midnight into the
defiles which were guarded by the Ro-
mans. Panic-struck at the terrible sight,
tiiey abandoned the heights, and Haimilial
forced his way through their ranks. The
Romans, dissatisfied with the delay of Fa-
bius, now made Minutius Felix, master of
the horse, liis colleague in the dictatorBhip.
Eager for combat, he fell into an ambush
at Gerunimn, and would have perislied,
but for the aid of Fabius. Ailer this
cam|)aign, the other Roman ffenerals
seemed unwilling to trust any tiling to
chance, and imitated the delay of Fabius.
Hannibal saw wi\h grief his army slowly
wasting a^way, when the new consul, Te-
rentius Varro, an inexperienced and pre-
sumptuous man, took the command of the
legions. Hannibal had occupied Cannae
(q. v.), and reduced the Romans to the
necessity- of risking an engagement The
two armies were drawn up in presence.
Paulus iEmilius, the colleague of Varroj
wished to put off tiie battle, on account of
the disadvantageous position of the Ro-
mans ; but Varro chose the day of his com-
mand, gave the signal fi>r the attack, and
the Roman army was destroyed. Hanni-
bal now marched to Capua, which imme-
diately opened its gates. Although tlie
soldiers were enervated by a residence in
this luxurious city, no Roman genera],
after the battie of Cannae, ventured to
show himself in the plain. Hannibal,
however, was no longer in a condition to
prosecute his successes. His army was
enfeebled ; and, notwithstanding his splen-
did success and the influence of his party
in Cartilage, his enemies had gamed such
an ascendency, that his brother Hasdrubal
with difiiculty procured him a smaU rein-
forcement of it^OOO foot and 2500 horse,
which he was obliged to conduct by the
way of Spain, mnnibal was therefore
compelled to assume the defensive. Capua
was mvested by two consular armies, and
was on tiie point of surrendering. Han-
nibal hoped to save it by a bold mversion.
He marched to Rome, and encamped in
sight of the capitol, B. C. 211 ; but tiie
Romans were not thus to be discouraged ;
Capua fell. This success gave tiie Ro-
mans a decided superiorit}', and nearly rJl
the people of Italy declared in their fiivor.
Held in check by the consul, Claudius

HANKIBAL--HANNO.

Itfl

ffero, Hannibal could not effod a union
witfi his brother, who, after having paaaed
the Apenninea, was attacked and de-
feated by ^oro, u> ^^- Haadnibal himaelf
feU, and his bloody head waa thrown into
the camp of Hannibal. The latter then
retired to Brattium, where, auirounded
with difficultiea, he yet maintained the
contest with inferior loroea against victo-
rious armies. But Scipio now carried the
war into Africa, and made Carthage trem-
ble ; and Hannibal was recalled to defend
his country. ^ Not Rome, but the senate
of Carthage has conquered Hannibal," he
exclaimed, in the deepest anguish, when
he read the orders recalling him from
Italy. He embariced his troops, put to
death the Italian allies who refused to ac-
companv him, and, in 205, left the countiy
which, tor 16 years, he had held in spite of
afl the efforts of Rome. He landed at
Leplis, gained over a part of the Numidi-
ans, and encamped at Adrumetum. Scipio
took several cities, and reduced the inhah-
hanti to slaveiy. Pressed by his country-
men to come to a decisive engagement,
Hannibal advanced to meet him, and en-
camped at Zama, five days' journey fit)m
Caitnage. The two ffenerals had an in-
terview, and HaEmibalproposed tenns of
peace ; but in vain. Hanmbal was defeat-
ed ; 20,000 Carthaginians were left upon
the field, and as many more taken prisf n-
en. Hannibal fled to Adrumetum, ralhed
the fiigitives, and, in a few da^ collected
a new aimy capable of checkmg the con-
cnieror^s progreaa. He then hutene<Cto
Caithage, and declared to the senate that
there was no safeQr but in peace ; and per-
suaded that body to acceae to the terms
oflfered. llius ended the bloody contest
of 18 years ; doubly fatal to Carthage,
winch was at once stripped of her former
conquests, and of all hope of new ones, by
the loss of her fleet Hannibal, neverdie-
leas, still retained his credit, and was made
commander-in-chief of an army in the
interior of Afiica. But the partisans of
. Hanno, his bitterest enemy, continued to
persecute him, and accused him to the
Romans of maintaining a secret corre-
spondence with Antiochus, king of Syria,
with the desini of lighting anew the flames
of war. Amoassaaors were accordingly
sent to Carthage, to demand that he should
be delivered up. He saved himself^ how-
ever, by fileeinff to Cerdna, and tiience to
lyre, where he was received with the
greatest honors. He afterwards went to
Elphcsus, to the court of Antiochus, en-
gaged him io declare war asainst the Ro-
mans, and persuaded him mat Italy must
14*

be made the theatre (faction. Antiocfaas
apiMoved his plana ; but when Hannibal
woposed an ailianoe with that prince to
his own countiy, his enemies prevailed
in the senate, and the whole design was
fhistrated. He was indeed uipointed to
the command of the Syrian neet, and at*
tacked the Rhodians, who were allies of
Rome ; but, owing to the treacheiy of one
of his officers, he veas forced to retreat
Antiochus himuBelf was led by a series of
misfortunes and errors to conclude a dis-
graceful peace. Hannibal was again oblig-
ed to flee, to escape being delivered up to
the Romans, and went to the court of
Pnisias,king of Bithynia, who was ani-
mated by the same spirit of hostility against
the Romans. He was the soul of a power>
ful league formed between Pruaas, and
several neighboring princes, against £u-
menes, king of Peigamus, an all^ of Rome,
took the command of the mihtaiy forceu
and gained several victories by land ana
sea. Notwithstanding these advantages
Asia trembled at the name of Rome ; and
Prusias, to whom the aenate had sent
ambassadors to demand the person of
Hannibal, was on the point or comply-
ing vrith the requisition. But the hero
prevented the disgrace by swallowing
poison, which he always carried about in
his ring. He died B. C. 183, aged 64
years. In the wotk HanaSbd^s Hunug
iiber die Mten (Hannibal^ March over the
Alps), by C. L. E. Zander (Hamb., 1823,
4to.), all the previous investigations con-
cerning Hannibal's route are cmleded'; tiM
author foUows Deluc.

Hanno ; a Carthaginian genend, who
made a voya^ on me western coast of
Africa, of which he has left the descrq>-
tion. The puipose of this voyage was to
make discovenes for the benefit of com-
merce, and to settle colonies, of ndiich he
established six on the coast of Morocco,
whence he continued his voyages of dis-
coveiy. From his description, he probably
proceeded as far as the coast of Cruinea ;
for his accountB of the people he de-
scribes, are applicable to the Negroes of
that countiy, and the two large sbeams
containing crocodiles and hippopotamus-
es conneqpond to the rivers Sen^(al and
Gambia. Hanno lived, probably, 550 B.C.,
and deserves a distinguished place amongst
the ancient navigatcm. The Ptr^phu of
Hanno is die Grecian translation of the
relation of his vovage. An English transla^
tion of it by Falconer appemd in 1797
(8vo.) — ^Two Carthaginian genefals, of
the name of Hanno, commanded in Sicily,
successively, during the first Punic war.—

HANNO— HANOVEIL

Another Hanno \fbs one of the com-
mandere under Huuiibiil in Italy, and was
distinguiahed by several fortunate enter-
prises.

Haitover ; a kingdom in the north of
Germany, erected in 1814, consisting of
the duchy of Bremen, the principality of
LuDebuig, and of several other countries.
It does not fbnn a consolidated whole,
several portions of it being detached from
the mam bodv. Area, 14,800 square
miles. The inhabitonts, in 1829, amount-
ed to 1,582,574, of whom 1,253,574 are
Lutherans, 200,000 Catholics, and the rest
Calvinists, Jews and Menonites. Its fig-
ure somewhat resembles an oblong square,
having the Elbe along its north-east dde,
the German ocean on the north-west,
Dutch Friesland, with Prussian Westpha-
lia, on the south-west, and Saxony on the
south-east. It lies between 6P 5V and 11'^
51' of E. Ion., and 5P 18^ and 53^ 54' of
N. lat In 1815, it was divided into the
11 following provinces : Calenbeig, G6t-
tiiu^n, Luneburff, Hoya and DiephohZy
HildeGiieim, Osnwriick, Veiden, the duchy
of Bremen fwhich is distinct from the
town), Bentheim, East Friesland, and
Lin^ (with part of the lordships of
Rhema and Meppen). These provinces
are subdivided into 107 baitiwics. With
the exception of the Hartz, and other ele-
vated tracts in the south, the territory of
Hanover consists of an immense plain,
with gentle undulations, but hardly any
thin^ that can be called a mountain. In
the south, the valleys are fertile. In the
north are manv barren heaths and moors.
The most productive tracts are those along
the banks of die rivers, which have been
reclaimed from a marshy state. The
mountain tract of the Hartz is covered
with vast forests, which are particularly
valuable in this, quarter, as they afford
fuel for the supply of the mines, ^vith
which the country abounds, and which
are still more valuable than its forests.
Those of silver were discovered as eariy
as the vear 968, and are supposed to have
been the first opened in Europe. Iron,
coppcfr and lead are wrought here to a
.great extent ; also zinc and sulphiu-, with
green, blue and white vitriol The iron
mines are the most productive ; and their
annual tenth yields a revenue of about
£1 15,000 sterling. The rivers of Hanover
are the Elbe (joined by the Jeetzel the
Ilmenau, the Oste, the Weser (wliicn re-
ceives the Leine), the Ocker, the Innerste,
the Ruhme, and the Embs (joined by the
Stunte and Haze). The chief lakes are those
of Stemhude and Dununer. The Hartz,

being a moimtain tract, is, like other
mining districts, deficient in com. The
duchy of Luneburg contains hnmense
heaths, called, on account of their barren-
ness, the Arabia of Crermam/. These are
turned to account as sheep-walks, and,
in some degree, as affording nourish^
ment to bees. The corn cultivated is a
mixture of wheat, bariey and oats, but
with a considerable proportion of rye and
buck-wheat; peas and beans are very
generally raised; but agriculture is, in
many parts of the kingdom, in a very back-
ward state. Thread and linen manufac-
tures are carried on in various parts. The
other manu&ctures of the kingdom are
coarse woollens, paper, leather and glass,
carried on in a number of places, but on
a small scale in each. The only town
which has a maritime trade of conse-
quence is Embden. Four fairs are held
annually at Hanover, and two at Osna-
br&ck. The goods imported firom abroad
are Elnglish manufactures and colonial
produce ; linen from Friesland and Prus-
sia; broadcloth, silk and jewelry from
France. The chief exports are coarse
linen, iron and copper fit)m the Hartz,
timber cut into planks, with horses and
black catde fiiom various parts of the
country. Hanover has one university',
37 gymnana and Latin schools, 3561 com-
mon schools in toi^ns and villages, four
seminaries for the education of school-
masters, six schools for midwives, &;c.
Public debt, 30,000,000 ffuilders ; revenue
of 1829, 3,202,324 guilders ; expenditure,
3,127,692 ; standinff army, 12,940 ; contiii
gent to the army of the Germanic confbd
eracy, 13,054. Dec. 7, 1819, the prince
regent of England gave Hanover a con-
stitution, if we may designate by this
name the charter, which expressly says,
that no untried principles shall be intro-
duced ; but that, in the main, the chambers
shall exercise the same privileffra as the
former provincial deputies. The pro-
\iucial estates were not abolished, and tlie
regent reserved to himself the right to
change and modify the charter, wmch is
founded on old aristocratic principles.
The Hanoverian nobility is noted as the
most arrogant in Germany, and the least
advanced m modem Uberal ideas. There
are two chambers, neither of which is
founded on the principle of general rep-
resentation. (See European VonaHtutionSy
Leipnc, 1820, 3d vol., p. 345.) Their first
session was opened Dec. 28, 1819, and the
duke of Cambridge, brother to the reffent,
in his speech, reminded the two'chaniDers
that they were divided only to investigate

HANOVER-HANSA.

ie$

the affiun of the country more thoroughly,
and not to have different principles of de-
libemtion. Publicity of debate, of course,
was not adnuasible. The privileges of
these chunberB amount to little more
than the liberty of discussinff matters
which government lays before them. By
the edict of Oct 12, 1822, the government
received a new orsuiization, and the
kingdom was divided into seven districts.
At the head is a ministry at Hanover,
which makes reports to the king in Eng-
land, and receives orders in regard to
affidrs of importance. In many parts of
the country, the feudal jurisdictions still
exist, and, in many instances, the judicial
and executive authority is still united, as
was formeriy the case almost every where.
At Zell, there is a supreme court of appeal.
Ernest Augustus, of the Bninswick-Lune-
bonr line, was made the first elector, in
1692. His son, Georse Lewis, ascended
the throne of England as George I. His
successors have been sovereigns, both of
Great Britain and Hanover. In the time
of the continental wars, Hanover under-
went many changes ; was once in posses-
sion of Prussia; afterwards formed the
main part of the kinsdom of Westphalia,
and, by the treaty or Paris, was raised to
the rank of a kingdom. The duke of
Cambridge, brother to William IV, is
governor-general of Hanover.

Hah OVER ; a city of Germany, the capi-
tal of the kingdom of that name, on tne
Leine, which here becomes navigable.
It is in the fi>rm of a half moon, and is
separated, by the river, into two perts,
called the Old and New Town. These
were formerly surrounded with walls and
ditches; but, in 1780, part of the ramparts
were leveUed, and hud out into streets,
and the rest formed into an esplanade,
where a monument has been erected to
Leibnitz. Hanover belonged to the Han-
aeatic league, in the middle ages. The
town has an antiquated aspect This is
particulariy the case in what is called the
Old Town. The New Town, winch stands
on the right side of the river, is buUt in a
much better style than the Old. The
public binldings are the elector's palace,
and thepuUic hbraiy, founded by Leib-
nitz, nrfie charitable institutions are an
orphan house, two hospitals, and two
poor-houses. For the purpose of educa-
tion, there is a gymnasium, a female
school of industry, and several elementarv
schools. The Ueorgianum is a school,
erected in 1796, for the education of 40
sons of Hanoverian nobles. Hermhau-
aen and Montbrillant are country man-

sions of the royai ftmiiy, at some dis-
tance firom the town. The inhabitanlB of
Hanover derive their chief support fiom
the presence of die court, and me gentry
of landed property. They have, however,
some manuftctures on a small scale, such
as gold and silver lace, the printing of
cotton and linen, the preparation of cich-
017 for cofifee, brewinfcmaking of vine-
gar, &c. Population, 27,500 ; 154 miles
W. Berlin; Ion. ^ iSf 5V^ E.; kt 52^
22^ 25" N.

Hanover ; a post-township, in Graflon
county, New Hampshire, 53 miles N. W.
of Concord, 102 from Portsmouth, and
114 from Boston; lat 43^42' N. The
population, m 1820, was 2222. Dart-
mouth coUege is situated in the S. W.
part of the township, about half a mile E.
of the river, on a beautiful plain, where
there is a village of about 70 housea It
was founded liy doctor Eleazer Wheelock,
and chartered by royal fnnL in 1769.
The funds, which were oncinally created
by chariud)le individuals, have been in-
creased by grants from die legislatures
of New Hampshire and Vermont, and
afibrd, at present, an annual income of
about $1600. The college library con-
tains about 4000 volumes; the medical
library about 500 ; and two libraries, be-
longing to coUege societies, about 4000
eacn ; makinr, in all, upwards of 12,000
volumes. The college has a philosophical
apparatus, chemical f^>parBtus, an anatom-
ical museum, and a cabinet of minerals.
The executive government is intrusted to a
president, eight professors, and two tu-
tors. The number of under-graduates, hi
1830, was 137, and medical students, 103.
There is a grammar-school connected
with the college, which has about 50 stu-
dents.

Hansa, or Hanseatic League. In
the middle of the 13th oentuiy, the sea
and land swarmed with pirates and rob-
bers. The German trade, during this
reign of violence, became exposed to va-
rious accidents, when the merchants lost
the right of travelling with armed attend-
ants, and the convoy afforded by soveni-
ment degenerated into a means of^extort-
ing a tax without yielding any protection.
Hamburg and Lobeck, which, with Bre-
men, had become important, since the
time of the Othos, found a powerful com-
mon enemy in the Danish king Walde-
mar, whom they opposed with great vigor.
This circufnstanee, the insecurity of the
navigation of the Elbe, which was becom-
ing constantiy more infested with pirates,
and the increasing dangers of the roads.

164

HAN8A.

gave rise to a coQfeatioii, in 1U39, be-
tween Hambufg, the free city of Dutmanh,
and Hadeln, and, in 1341, to a confede-
mcf between Hambuiig and Lfibeck, in
which they mutually engaged to defend
each other against all violence, and par-
ticulariy against the attacks of the noolea
The confederacy was joined, in 1247, by
Bnmswick, which served as a depot to the
two first named towns; for while Italy
was in possession of the trade to the Le-
vant and India, a commercial route had
been formed through Germany, by the
way of the Upper Palatinate and Franco-
nia, to the east of the Hartz, and throucfa
Brunswick to Hambuig, aMiough, at the
same time, some goods were earned down
die Rhine. Thus Brunswick was espe-
cially interested in the allied towns, which
were soon joined by numerous others.
This union was called, bv way of emi-
nence, the Hanta, which, m the old Teu-
tonic dialect, ngnifies a league for mutual
defence. In a ^ort time, the membere
became so numerous that, in 126Q, a diet
was held at Likbeck, the chief city of the
league. Regular meetings of the con-
federacy now took place there eveiy three
years, about Whitsuntide, and the general
archives of the league were kept there.
The number of the Hanse towns varied.
The laigest number was 85, as follows :
Ancbm, Andemach, Ascheraleben, Ber-
lin, Bttgen in Norway, Bielefeld, Bols-
wnrt in Friesland, Bruideoburg, Brauns-
beig, Brunswick, Bremen, Buxtehude in
the duchy of Bremen, Campen in Overys-
sel, Dantzic, Demmin in Pomerania, u^
venter, Dorpat, Dortmund, Duisbuig, Ein-
beck in theHaitz, Elbing, Elburg in Guel-
deriand, Emmerich in Cleves, Frankfort
on the Oder, G<^ow in Pomerania, Gos-
lar, €r6ttingeD, Greifewald, Gr5ningen,
HaDe in Saxony, Halberstadt, Hamburg,
Hameln, Hamm in Westphalia, Hanover,
Harderwyck in Guelderland, Helmstadt,
Hervorden in Westphalia, Hildesheim,
Kiel, Coesfeld in Monster, Colben, Co-
logne on the Rhine, K6nigBberg in Prussia,
Cracow in Poland, Cuhn in Prussia, Lem-
go in Westphalia, Lizheim in Lorraine,
on the bordera of Alsaoe, Liibeck, Lfine-
borg, Maffdeburg, Minden in Hanover,
Mfinster, Nimeguen in Guelderiand,Noid-
heim, Osnabrfick, Osterbuig in the Alt-
maric, PadeiiiorD, Quedlinburg, Revel, Ri-
fla, Rostock, Rfigenwalde, Rfiremond in
uuelderiand, Salzwedel, Seehausen in the
maik of Brandenburg, Soest in Westpha-
lia, Stade in Bremen, Stargard, Staveren in
Friesland, Stendal, Stettin, Stoipe, Stral-
sund, Thorn, Venkw in Guelderland, Veh-

zen in Lfinebiug, Urnia in Westphalia,
Wariienr in Sweden, W^ffoen in the Ak-
nuufk, Wesel, Wisby in Gothland, Wis-
mar, Zfitphen, Zwoll in Guelderland.
These towns were divided into four prov-
inces, each having a chief town. To the
first belonged the Wendish or Vandalic
towns ; chief city, Lfibeck: to the second,
die towns of Cleves, the Mark and West-
phalia, and the four towns in Guelderland,
which were not subject to the government
of Burgundy; chief city, Cologne : to the
third belonged the Saxon and Branden-
buiv towns; chief city, Brunswick: and
to the fourth, the Prussian and Livonian
towns; chief city, Dantzic. At another
period, the whole was divided into three
provincesw At the same time, four great
mctories or depots were established in
foreign countries : at London, in 1250 ; at
Bruges, in 1252; at Novgorod, in 1272;
and at Bergen, in 1278. Charters fiK>m
kings and princes gave finnness to die
whole ; and, in 1964, an act of donfede-
racv was drawn up at Cologne. In the
14tn century, the league every where
attained a high political importance, and
gave rise to the developement of that
commercial policy which has eince be-
come intimately connected with all politi-
cal relations, but of which the sovereigns
of that time had little idea. The object of
the league was now more fully declared ;
to protect themselves and their commerce
from pillage; to guard and extend the
foreign commerce of the allied citiea,
and, as fer as practicable, to monopolize it ;
to manage the administration of justice
within the limits of the confederacy; to
prevent injustice bv public assembyes,
diets, and courts or arbitration; and to
maintain the lifi^ts and immunities re-
ceived fiHHn princes, aild, if posnble, to
increase and extend them. Among the
intenial regulations were, the obligationa
incurred, on being received into the con^
federacy, to fiunish soMieis and vessds,
or, in certain cases, money as a substitute,
and to pay the duties and amercements.
The league exercised a judicial power.

>reign

fiictories were subjected to an almost mo-
nastic discipline, which even required tbe
celibacy of fectors, maaiera and membera
of the guilds. The laws prescribed to the
scents of the English fur companies, in
North America, and the North- west and
Hudson's bav companies, resemble, in
many particulais, those of the Hanseatic
fectories. By a uniform adherence to their

HANSA— HAPSBURG.

T6»

great object, and by the maintenaiice of
good order, the Hanaeatic cities obtained
a great importance, although the confed-
eracy was never formally acknowledged
by the empire ; and kings and princes
were, in reality, more dependent on the
league than it was on them. The Hanse
towns in England were exempted from
duties on exports, and in Denmark, Swe-
den and Russia, from those on imports —
privileges which were enjoyed by no sub-
jeclB of those countries. The extennve
carrying trade of the Hanseatic confed-
emcy was a great source of wealth ; and,
at length, there was no mart in Europe
which was not gradually drawn within
the circle of its influence; and, by the
greatness of its wealth and the might of its
anns, it became the mistress of crowns,
and lands and seas. It conquered Eric
and Hakon, kings of Norwav, and Walde-
mar III of Denmark. It deposed a king
of Sweden, and save his crown to Albert,
duke of Mecklenbui^. In 1428, it equip-
ped a fleet of248 ship6,with 12,000 soldiers,
against Copenhagen. Niederhof^ a bur-
gomaster of Dantzic, ventured to declare
war against Christian, king of Denmark.
E^land, Denmaric and Flanders con-
cluded treaties with the league, for the
extension of their conunerce. It under-
took to provide for the security of com-
merce on the Baltic and North seas. In
the country under its immediate influence,
it constructed canals, and introduced a
uniform system of weights and measures.
But the prosperity of the Hanse towns
was naturally dependent on the continu-
ance of the cnpcumstances which gave rise
to it; and when those circumstances
changed, the league was destined to ML
When, therefore, the routes by land and
sea were no longer insecure ; when
princes learned the advantages of trade to
their own states, and turned their attention
to the formation of a naval force of their
own, and the encouragement of naviga-
tion ; when the inland members of the
confederation perceived that the great
seaport towns had a separate interest of
their own, and used them principally to
promote their own ends ; when the mari-
time towns ceased to be the masters of the
Baltic, and the German princes deter-
mined to subject those of tiie interior to
their immediate control, in order to secure
the greatest possible advantages from their
commerce, to which they were encour-
aged especially by the emperor Charles V,
who thought to improve the commerce
of his possessions in the Netherlands, and
vnSf consequentiy, disafibcted to the alli-

ance ; and when the discovery of America
produced a total revolution in trade,— then
the dissolution of the Hanseatic league
was evidendy approaching. The last
diet was heki at L&beck, m 1690, and the
confederation was dissolved. But Ham-
burg, Lfibeck and Bremen united anew
(and, in certain cases, Dantzic was admit-
ted amonff them), though not under tiie
name of Hanseatic toWns. In 1S96, Great
Britain concluded treaties with the Han-
seatic towns, regulating the trade on prin-
ciples of reciprocity, the saine as with
Sweden, Denmark, &c. (See Bmmn,
Hcanlnav, Mbeck, and Dree CiiU$.) The
name of Hanse towns no longer exists in
the vocabulary of politics. Hamburg,
Bremen, L&beck and Frankfort are styled,
in the Gerwan confederation, the four free
cUies,

HlirsFoLZ. (SeeJbfe.)

Hans Sach^. (See Sachs.)

Hanwat, Jonas, a merchant and travel-
ler, distinguished for his active benevo-
lence, was bom at Portsmonth in 1712.
At an eariy age, he was apprenticed to a
merchant at Lisbon, and, m 1743^ became
a partner in an English house at Peters-
burg. The concerns of the parmership
renderirur a journey to Perma desirable, it
was gladly undertaken by Mr. Hanway,
who went to Astrabad with a carao of
English goods. In 1753, he publi^ed a
work entitied An Historical Account of
the British Trade over the Caspian Sea,
&C., with the particular History <^ the
neat Usurper Nadir Kouli (4 vola 4to.).
In the same year, he engaged in die con-
troversy concerning the naturalization of
the Jews, and pubCshed a Review of the
proposed Naturalization, by a Merchant; a
thiiti edition of which appeared the same
year. From this time, Mr. Hanway con-
tinued publishing, on a varie^ of topicfl^
all relating to points of pubSc gooa, or
schemes of charity and utility. His fel-
low citizens entertained such a sense of
his merits, that a deputation of the princi-
pal merchants of London waited upon
lord Bute, to reouest that some public
mark of favor might be conferred upon a
man who had done so much service to
the conununity, at the expense of 1^ pri-
vate fortune. He was, in conSiqilRnce,
made a commissioner of the navy, which
post he held for twenty years, and, on res-
ignation, was allowed to retain the salary
for life. He died in 1786, and a monu-
ment was erected to him by subscrip-
tion.

Hapsbueg (properiy Hahshwv) ; a small
place in the swiss canton of Aargau^ oai

166

HAPSBURG— HARDENBERG.

the- light baak of the Aar. The casile
wag built, ID the 11th oenUny, by bishop
Wenier, on a steep, rocky situation;
whence the name, which was originally
HMelMm (Hawka-Castle). The nro-
prietOTB of HapriHiK became, at a uter
period, eounts of Hapabui^, and grad-
ually jaoquired a mcie extensive tsiri-
toiy. In 1373; Rodolpb, count of Haps-
buig, was choisen empcsor of Germany.
He is the founder of the reipning house
of Austria, which is of the Ime of Haps-
buig-Lorraine, From Rodolph toChanes
VI, the Austrian monarchs were of the
Hapebuig male line. Maria Theresa, who
succeeded Charies VI, married Francis
Stephen of Lorraine, who, in 1745^ was
chosen emperor of Germany. Their son,
the first of the Hapsbrnig-Lonaine line,
Joseph II, died 1790. His successor, Leo-
pold II, died 179SS. His successor, Francis
(as emperor of Germany, II ; as emperor
of Austria, I), is the present sovereign.
The castle of Hapsbuiig is still to be seen
on the WiUpelsberg.

HARDBiTBEBa^ Frsderic von ; known as
an author under the name of Abtxalw,
bom flfoy 3, 1772, died March 2S, 180L
His parents paid great attention to his
education. In Jena, Von Hardenben
studied philosophy, and at Leipac and
Wittenberg, the taw. From thence he
went to TennstAdt, where it was intended
he should be practically instructed in ju-
risprudence. In December, 1797, he
went to Freybeig, where Julia yon Char-
pentier won his aflbcti<w& In 1799, he
foimed a finendship with L. Tieck and
the two SchlegelsL He had made himself
well acquaints with law, natural philos-
ophy, mathematics and philosophy, but
was most eminent for his poetical talents.
In the woriu of Novalifl^ tnere is a singu-
lar mixture of imagination, sensit>iliQr> r^
ligion and mysticism. He was the gen-
tlest and most amiable of enthusiasiBi
Same of his hymns are very beautifuL
His novel Heinneh von Clfterdingtn was
left unfinished. His Hvmns to Night
have the gpmoest merit His woiks have
been pubBsbed at Beriin (1814 and 1816,
3d edit).

HAADBHBKae> Charies Augustus (baron,
afiermaii prince of) ; Prussian chancellor
of state. He was bom at Hanover, May
31, 1750, and, after having completed his
studies in Leipsic and G6ttingen, entered
into the civil service of his country in
1770. He passed severalyean in travel-
ling througli Germany, France, Holland,
and particukriy England. In 1778, he
was made privy counsellor; but a misun-

with one of the Engfati
princes iiufuced him to resigp his plaoiB in
1789; and to enter the service of Bruns-
wick. The duke sent him to Berlin^ in
1786, with the vrill of Frederic II, which
had been deposited with him. Here he
gave so much satisfaction, that the duke
sent him repeatedly to the same place. In
1790, he was made minister of the last
margrave of Anspach and Baireuth, on
the recommendation of Prassia. When
the mararavate was incorponuted with
Prussia, Hardenberg remained in his of-
fice, and was made Prussian minister of
state, and, soon aftei^ cabinet minister.
April 5, 1795, he signed the peace be-
tween the French republic ana Pruaria,
on the part of tlie latter. At the begin-
ning or this centuiy, Beriin became the
centre of many negcrtiations between the
noithero powers. The minister Haug-
witsE fiivorad France, but the influau^ ^
Hardenbeig decided the Pmssian cabinet
to take part with England. Count Haug-
witz therefore gave in his resignation, ami
Hardenberg succeeded him, in August,
1804. The disastere which Pmsaa soon
aftersufifered, in the conflict with Napo-
leon, are well known. In consequence
of the tineaty of December 15, 1806,
which Haugwitz concluded at Vienna,
between Prussia and France, Hardenberg
again gave up his place to that minister ;
but, on the breaking out of the war of
180iS, he once more resumed the port-folio.
After the peace of Tilsit, he asked lor his
dismission ; but, in 1810, the king of Prus-
sia appointed him chancellor of slate
(prime minister), and endeavored to form
a union with France ; but the disasten of
the French armv In Russia changed his
policy. Hardenberg signed the peace of
Paris, and was created prince. He went
to London with the sovereigns, and was
one of the most prominent acton at the
congress of Vienna* He was subeequenl-
Iv the active agent in all matten in which
Pnisaia took ^art ; he was made president
of the council of state ; vras present, in
1818, at the congress of Aix-la-Chapelle ;
in 1819, at Carlsbad ; in 1830, at Vienna,
at Troppau and Verona. While on a
journey m the nordi of Italy, he fell sick
at Pavia, and died at Genoa, November
27, 1829L As to his political jninciples in
the latter part of his life, he was an active
minister of the holy alliance ; but, still,
he understood that the time of feudalism
vras pest, and his abolition of feudal ser-
vices and privileges in Prussia will always
be remembered in his fiivor. He patron-
ized the sciences munificently, and the

HAIi0£NB8BO--aAR£.

AundBtioii of tfhe qni ww it^ of Bonn m
iiononble to him. He lored power, but.
at the same time, his admimBtration had
many good features. In the yeafa 1807 —
1810, prince Hardenbetg wrote Memoin
OB hia Time, from 1801 to the Peace of
TSfait, and, before hie death, gave the
noanoacript to Sch6tt, a counaeUor of state.
The fcin#, however, sealed it with hia
aims, ancf ordered it not to be opened un-
til 1850. Haidenbeig was twice manied.
His son by the fint maniage is a count,
and in the Danish service.

Haedicarute, king of England and
Denmark, was the sonof Canute, lyy Emma,
daughter of Richard, duke of Normandy.
He succeeded his Atfaer on the Danish
throne in 1088, and, at the same time,
kid claim to that of England, which had
devolved to his elder and half-brother,
Ibrold. A compromise was effected, by
which the southern part of the kingdom
waa, for a while, hela in his name by his
mother Emma ; and, on die death of his
broiher, be socoeeded to the whole. His
government was violent and tyrannical;
he revived the odious tax of Danegeh,
and punished, with great severity, the in-
BunnectionB which it occasioned. The
death of this despicable prince, in conse-
quence of intempei^uice at the nuptials of
a Daniflh nobleman, broufdit his nngn to
an early termination, to me gfeat joy of
his 8ub|ects^ in 1041.

HAnnnsBB, m physiolo^ ; the lesiat-
anee oppOaed by a bod^ to mipreesiori, or
to the separation of its paiUclea. This
property depends on the force of cohe*
aion, or on that which chemists call qgk^
1^ joined to the arrangement of the par-
tides, to their figure, and other circum-
stances. A body, says M. Hauy, is con-
flidered more hard in proportion as it pre*
aents greater resytance to the fnction of
another hard bodv, such as a steel file ; or
as it is more amable of wearing or worit-
ing into such omer body, to which it may
be applied by dicdon. Lqndaries judge
of the hardness of fine stones, &C., fiom
the difficulty with which they are worn
down, or polished.

HAknouiN, John ; a learned French
Jesuit, no less cekbrated for his intimate
acqunntance with the claarical authon of
annquity, than remaikabfe for the smgu-
larity of his opinions respecting the au-
dienticity of their writings. He was bom
in 1646, at Quimper in Bretagne,and died
at Paris, 1739. The woriL bv ft^ich he is
principally known, is his Vmmiogia ex
MmmM€mHauiUrutUutaPr6lu9iod€MM^
m» lfervd£»ft«ii,in which he aui^ona the

extmordinaiy hvpethesiB, that almost all
the writings under the names of the Oieek
and Roman poets and historians, are the
spurious productions of the 19th century.
HJ0 exceptions to this denunciation are,
the worics of Cicaro and Pliny, aa well as
of some of those attributed to tfonce and
VirgiL He contend% at the same time,
that the two latter are allefforical wrilen,
who, under die names of Ldage and iEne-
as, have represented the Chnstian relig-
ion and the hie of its Ibunder. This
treatise was condemned and proscribed,
the author was called upon mr a mibfic
recantation of his errois, which in net he
made ; but he afterwards repeated his of-
fence in other publicadons. Among his
102 works are, AUsinu anHqui Pa/nmntm
H Uihwm muttraU (1684); PBny^ Natu-
ral Histoiy, in usum Delpnini (5 vok., 4to^
1685) ; and another in 13 folio volumes of
The Councils (1705). On this latter woric
he expended a great deal of time and
labor, but it was suppressed br the parlia-
ment He considered all the councili^
previous to that of Trent, as imaginary.
A selection fiiom fttherHardouin's worki^
comprising most of those which had fidlen
under the censure of the Romish church,
appeared, in 1700, at Amsterdam. Hie
following epitaph, which has been eiro-
neously ascribed to Atterbuiy, and to
ureeident de Roee, was written by Jacob
Vemet, of (ileneva :

Hie Jacet Ii'Miiuiimi paradoKol*tot.

Orbit mbc^ii partentnm,

VeneraiMbe utiquitaiii oiltor ei defmdator,

Docte febricit8u.r;
Sonuia et inaudita commenUi vigi..iiifl edidit^

Scepticum pie egit,

OedoliUOe poar,

Aodaci&Jdvens,
Deliriis teaei.

Hare (Imt), The generic charactere
of this well known animal are, four cutting
teeth in the upper jaw, and two in the
lower ; two of the upper teeth, however,
are pkced behind the othen^ and are of a
much smaller size ; the whole dental for-
mula is, incisors |, canines 9, molars f f
b28; the two fore feet with five, and the
hinder with four, toes. These animals
are found in almost eveiy part of the
world, living entirel;^ on veiretable food,
and all remaricably timid. They run by
a kind of leB{Hng pace, and, in walkings
use their hind ftet as far as the had.
Their tails are either veiy short or ahnost
wanting. The female goes with young
about a month, generally modttdng duee
to rix at a litter, and this anottt four timea
a year. The eyes of the young are open
at biitfL The dam euGUes tiiam about

1U&£— HAREM.

90 dajBy after which Aey leave her^ and
urocure their own fbocL The European
liare (L, tvmdus) ia found throughout
Europe, and some parts of Asia. The
color of this speciee is of a tawny red od
the back and sides, and white on the
belly. The ears, which are veiy long,
are tipped with black ; ^e eyes are very
large and prominent. The length of this
anSnal is about two feet, and, when full
grown, it weighs six to eight pounds. It is a
vratchftil, timid creature, always lean, and,
from the form of its lega^ runs swifter up
hill than on level grouiS. Hares feed on
vegetables, and are veiy fond of the bark
of young trees ; their mvorite food, how-
ever, is parsley. Their flesh was forbid-
den to be eaten among the Jevrs and the
aacient Britons, whilst the Romans, on the
contraiy, held it in great esteem. '*hder
quadrvpedes gforia prima Upua^ — ^Martial ;
and Horace, who is good authority as an
eincure, sav% Every man of taste must
prefa* the fore shouMer— '^ F^cundi lepcfis
sapUm udabiiur armosJ* The flesh is
now much prized for its peculiar flavor,
thodgh it is veiy black, dry, and devoid
of fw. The voice of the hare is never
beard but when it is seized or wounded.
At such times, it utters a sharp, loud ciy,
not very unlike that of a child. It has a
rem.aiKaUe instinct In escaping from its
eneiuies; and manj instances of the sur-
prising sagadty of these animals are on
recon^ though it appears that all of them
do not poflsesB equal experience and cun-
ning. A perpetual war is carried on
against them by cats, wolves, and birds of
prey ; and even man makes use of eveiy
artifice to entrap these defenceless and
timid creatures. They are easily tamed,
but never attain such a degree of attach-
meol as rendere them domestic, always
avaiBng themselves of the first opportunity
to escape. Among the devices of hares
to elude their pursuers, the following have
been observed : Getting up into a hollow
tree, or upon ruined walls ; throwing
themsetves into a river, and floating down
some distance; or swinuning out into a
lake, keeping only their nose above the
surfiice ; returning on their own scent, &c
The American Imre (L. Amerieanus'j, so
well known under the name of rabbU^ is
found in most {larts of North America.
The summer hair is dark brown on the
umier part of the head, lighter on the
sides, and of an ash color below ; the
ears are wide, edged with white, tipped
with brown, and dark colored on their
back; tail, dark above, white beneath,
having the inferior surface turned up ; the

foro legs are shorter and the hinder longer
in pn^rtion than those of the European.
In the Middle and Southern States, the
change in the color of the hair is by no
means as remarkable as it is farther north,
where it becomes white, or nearly so.
This species is fiom 14 to 18 inches long
The American hare generally keeps with-
in its form during me day, feeding early
in the mornincr or at night. The flesh is
dark colored^ but is much esteemed as an
article of food. It is in its prime late in
the autumn and in the winter. It is not
hunted in this country as in Europe, but
is generally roused by a dog, and shot or
caught by means of snares or a common
box trap: this latter is the most usual
mode. In its gait, it is very similar to the
European, leaping rather than running.
Like that animal, it breeds several times
during the year. There are several other
qiecies of the hare inhabiting North
America, of which the most remaricable
is the polar hare (L. glacidUa). This
occuro in vast numbera towards the ex-
treme northern part of the continent It
is larger than the common hare. The fur
is exceedingly thick and woolly, of the
purest white in the cold months, witli the
exception of a mfl of long black hair at
the tip of the ears. In summer, the hair
becomes of a grayish brown. [SeeRabbiL]

Harelip is a single or double fissure
.of the upper lip, by which it is divided
into two or three parts, and is thus made
to resemble the lip of the hare. .Children
are not unfi«quently bom with this de-
formity. The fissure is sometimes con-
fined to the lip, but more commonly
extends t6 the gums and palate, which it
divides into two parts. It produces great
difiiculty in speech, and besides keeping
the mouth open, and thus suflTering the
saliva to escape, it is a dreadfiil deformity
in appearance. It is veiy common, but, for-
tunately, is easily curable, so that it seldom
goes lon^ unremedied, unless fit>m choice
or timidity. The operations for removing
this most unfortunate deformity, in its
worst forms, are among the merits which
have given celebrity to the name of Des-
sault.

Harem (Arabic, sacrtdy the sanctuary)
is used, by Mussulmans, to sirni^ the
women's apartments, which are forfcndden
to every man except the husband. It
answers, in some measure, to the gyntt-
cemii of the Greeks. The term sera^ioy
often used by Europeans for hannij is a
corruption of the word send, i. e., palace.
The ladies are served by fomale slaves,
and guarded by black eunuchs ; the head

flAREM— HARLEQUIN.

of the latter is called IddixMutti, There
are two kizlar-aj;aSy one of the old, the
other of the new pdaoe, each of which
has its harem. The one is occupied by
the women of former sultans, and those
who have incurred the displeasure of the
rejffning prince; the other, bv such as
still enjoy his &yor. Doctor Ckrke, who
visited the summer palace during the
absence of the occupants, has given a
particular description of it in his Travels
(voL iii, pp. 20— o7). The women of the
imperial harem are all slaves, een^rally
Circassiaus or Georgians ; for no fiiee bom
Turiuflh woman can be introduced into it
as an oddhrlicj or concubine. Their num-
ber depends solely on the pleasure of the
sultan, but is very considerable. His
mother, female relations and grandees, vie
with each other in presenting him the
handsomest slaves. Out of this great
number he chooses seven wives, although
but lour are allowed by the prophet.
These are caUed cadins, and have splendid
appointments. The one who fim pre-
sents him widi a male heir is styled the
ntUanOy by way of eminence. She must
then retire into the eski serai (old palace);
but if her son ascends the throne, she
returns to the new palace, and has the
title of wUana valide. She is the oidy
woman who is allowed to appear without
a veil; none of the others, even when
sick, are permitted to lay aside the veil, in
the presence of anv one except the sultan.
When visits by the physician, their bed
is covered with a thick counterpane, and
the pube felt through gauze. The li& of
the bdies of the imperial harem is spent
in bathing, dressinff, walking in the gar-
dens, wimeaaing the voluptuous dances
performed by their slaves, &;c. The
women of other Turits enioy the society
of their friends at the baths or each oth-
er^ houses, appear in public accompanied
by slaves and eunuchs, and enjoy a de-
cree of liberty which increases as they
descend in rank. But those of the sultan
have none of these privileges. When
transferred to the siunmer residences on
the Bo^horus, they are removed at break
of day, pass firom the garden to the boats
between two screens, while the eunuchs,
fcNT a considerable distance round, warn
eveiy one off, on pain of death. Each
boat*^has a cabin covered with cloth, and
the eunuchs keep the boatmen or hos-
tandgis at a distance. It is, of course, only
the richer Moslems who can maintain
harems ; the poorer classes have generally
bat one wife.

Hariot, or Heriot, in law; a due

VOL. VI. 15

belonging to a kffd at the death of hii
tenant, consastkig of tne best beast, either
horse, 03K, or cow, which he had at the
time of his deatii ; and, in some manorsi
the best foods, piece of plate, &c., are
called Aonote.

Harlxian Library. (See Uartey.)

Harlem. (See HaarUnu)

Harlequin (arieccMnOf Italian). It is
not in our power to determine the etymol-
ogy of the name of this dramatic person-
age. Manage derives it from a comedian,
mo was so called because he frequented
the house ef M. de Harlay, in the reign of
Henry UI of France. Batteux derives it
from the satirical drama of the Greeks.
Rjccobini conjectures (History of the
Italian Theatre) that the dress of the
harlequins is no other than the centunculta
of the old Roman mtmt, who had their
heads shaved, and were called ofon^Miet
(barefooted). To the reasons adduced by
Iticcobini, we may add the rkliculoas
sword of the ancient mimi, which, with
the hariequin, has been converted into a
stick. HaiWuins and buffoons are also
called xmaiij hy the best Tuscan writen^

?robablv from die Latin sannio, of which
!icero (De Oratore, ii, 61) gives a descrip-
tion applying so strongly to the harlequm,
that it places his derivation from the jda-
nipedes almost beyond a doubt The
character of the ancient harlequin was a
mixture of extravagant buffoonery with
great corporeal agility, so that his body
seemed aimoet constantiy in the air. He
was impudent, droU, satirical and low,
and often indecent in his expressions.
But, in the middle of the 16th centuiy, his
character was essentially changed. The
modem harlequin laid aside the peculiari-
ties of his predecessor. He became a
simple, ignorant servant, who tries very
hard to be witty, even at the expense of
bemg malicious. He is a paraate, cow-
ardfy, yet faitiiful and active, but easilv
induced, by fear or interest, to commit all
sorts of tncks and knaveries. He is a
chameleon, who assumes all colors, and
can be made, in the hands of a skilibl
actor, the principal character on the stafle.
He must excel in extempore sallies. The
modem harlequin plays many droll tricks,
which have been handed down, from gen-
ention to generation, for centuries. This
account applies more particulariy to the
Italian hanequin. Italy, in &ct, particu-
lariy in the commedia wTarit^ is his natu-
ral scene of action. He can only be prop-
eriy appreciated when seen in that de-
partment of the drama, and distinct from
all other similar personages. Whether ha

170

HARLEQUIN— HARMONIA.

J8 to be tolented or not, is a question of
importance. He has found an able advo-
cate in Mdser (Harlequin, or Defence of
the Grotesque-Comicl (See Mask.) The
gallan^ obsequious French harlequin is
an entirely national mask. In the Vaude-
ville tlieatre, he is sQent, with a black half
mask, and reminds oncj throughout the
representation, of the grace and agility of
the cat (See Carlisru} In England, he
became a lover and a magician; and) in
exchange for the gift of language, of which
he was there deprived, he was invested
with the wonder-working wand, from the
poeseasion of which Mr. Uouce pronoun-
ces him to be the <* illegitimate successor
of the old Vice" (On Shakspeare, i, 458).
(See PunckineUo.) A standing grotesque
character, on the German stage, was called
Hanswurst (Jack-Pudding^ and answered
to the Dutch Pickled-Hernng, the Frendi
Jean-Potage, the Italian (more proper^
Neapolitan] Maccaroni, and the En^ish
Jack-Puddmg. This family was a race
of ffourmands, clowns, coarse and rude in
their wit

Harlet, Robert; earl of Oxford, and
earl Mortimer, a distinguished minister of
state, in the reign of queen Anne. He
was bom in London, in 1661, and was the
son of sir Edward Hariey, a Herefordshire
gentleman, who had been an active parti-
san of the parliament during the civil war.
The subject of this article, though of a
Presbyterian fiimily, adopted tory princi-
ples in politics, and joined the hign church
party. In the reign of William III, he
acted with the whigs ; but, after the acces-
sion of Anne, he, as well as his more cel-
ebrated colleague, St John, afterwards
lord Bolingforoke, deserted the party with
which they had acted, and became lead-
ers of the tones. Hariey was chosen
speaker of the house of commons in
1702, and afterwards was secretary of
state. He resigned his post in 1708. The
cabals of their political opponents having
effected the removal of the duke of Marl-
borough and his fiiends from office, Har-
iey was nominated a commissioner of the
treasuiT and chancellor of the exchequer,
in 1710. In 1711, Hariey was raised to
the peerage, and constituted lord hi^
treasurer. After the peace of Utrecht, m
1713, the toiy statesmen, having no
longer any apprehensions of danger fiom
abroad, blegim to quarrel amonff them-
selves; and the two chiefi, Ox&rd and
Bolingbroke, especially, became personal
and political foes, actuated by different
views and sentiments. The former re-
signed the treasurarship just before the

death of the queen in 1714. Whatever
prejects may have been formed by othefs
of the forty f there seems to be no ground
for behaving that lord Oxford had en-
jnged in any measures to inteinipt the
Protestant succession, f^u'ly in the reign
of George I, he was, however, impeached
of high treason by the house of commons,
and was committed to the Tower. He
remained in confinement till June, 1717,
when, at his own petition, he was brought
before die house of peers, and, afler a

Subhc trial, acquitted of the crimes laid to
is charge. The rest of his life was spent
in adding to his literary stores, in the col-
lection of which he expended a consider-
able portion of the wealth which his pub-
lic employments had enabled him to accu-
mulate. He died May 21, 1724. His
patronage was extended to Swift, Pope,
and other literary men. Lord Oxford
published a Letter to Swift fbr correcting
and improving the English Tongue ; an
Essay on publtc Credit ; an Essay upon
Loans ; and a Vindication of the Rights
of the Commons of England. He was
succeeded in his tides by his son Edward,
who augmented the collection of printed
books and manuscripts formed by his
father. On the death of the second eail
of Oxford, in 1741, the libraiy of printed
books v^as sold to Osborne, a bookseller,
who published a catalogue of them, com-
piled by WUliam Oldvs and Samuel John-
son (4 vol&, 8vo., 17^>. The MSS. are
preserved in the British museum, where
they form the BUdiotheca Harldana.

Harmattan ; a wind which blows pe-
riodically fit)m the interior parts of Africa,
towards the Adantic ocean. It prevails
in December, January and February, and
is generally accompanied with a foff or
ha»5, that conceals uie sun for whole days
together. Extreme dryness is tlie charac-
teristic of this wind ; no dew falls during
its continuance, which is sometimes fbr a
fortnight or more. The whole vegetable
creation is withered, and the grass be-
comes, at once, like hay. The human
body is also afl^ted by it, so that the
skin peels oft*; but it checks infection,
and cures cutaneous diseases.

HARMonius. (See Htppiaa^ and Arts-
toriUmJ)

Harmonia, or Hermionx; a daughter
of Mars and Venus, the fiuit of an amour,
in which they were surprised by Vulcan.
Her name was at first used to indicate
music in seneral. She emigrated with
her hudband, the Phoenician Cadmus, into
Greece, where she is said to have intro-
duced music.

HARMONICA— HARMONY,

171

HABMomcA, or AMUomc^ is a. name
which doctor Fnnklin has givea to a mi**
flical inatruiiient conatructed with drinking
ghaees. Itia well known that a drinking
|da8B yiekls a sweet tone, by paasinf awet
miser round its hrim. lAr. Pockncb, of
InSEind, was the first mIio thought of play-
ing tunes lormed of these tones. He col-
lected a number of glasses of different
ozes, fixed thera near each other on a ta-
ble, and tuned them by putting into them
water, more or less, as each note required.
Mr. Deiayol made an inatnunent in imitv-
tiouy and finom this instniment doctor
Frankfin took the hint of constructing his
annomca. The glasses for this musical
instniment are blown as neariv as possible
in the form of hemiBf^eres, having each
an open neck or socket in the middle.
The thickness of the glass near the brim
is about one tenth of an inch, increasing
towards the neck, which, in the lai]gest
gjwftw, is about an inch deep, and an inch
and a half wide within ; but these dimen-
flionB lessen as the size of the glasses dimin-
ialies: the neck of the smallest should not
be shorter than half an inch. The diameter
of the huvest glass is nine inches, and that
of the smdlest three inches. Between these
there are 23 different sizes, differing fix>m
each other a quarter of an inch in diameter.
The larsest fflass in the instrument is O, a
little beiww ttie reach of a common voice,
and the highest G, including three com-
plete octaves ; and they are distinguished
bv painting die apparent parts of the
pBu o ca withm side, every seroiUme white,
and the other notes of die octave with the
seven prismatic colon ; so that glasses of
the same color (the white excepted) are
always octaves to each other. When the
glaases are tuned, they are to be fixed on a
round 8|nndle of hard iron, an inch in
diameter at the thickest end, and tapering
to a quarter of an inch at the smallest.
For this purpose, the neck of each glass is
fitted wiUi a cork, projecting a little with-
out the neck. These corks are perforated
with holes of different diameters, according
to the dimension of the spindle in that part
of it where thev are to be fixed. The
glasees are all p&ced vrithin one another ;
the krgest on the biggest end of the spin-
dle, vrith the neck outwards ; the next in
aze is put into the other, leaving about an
inch orits brim above the brim of the first ;
and the odien are put on in the same order.
From these exposed parts of each glass
the tone is drawn, by laying a finger upon
one of them as the spindJe and glasses
turn round. The spindle, thus prepared.
Is fixed horizontally in the middle of a box,

and made to turn on brass gudgeons at each
end by means of a foot-wheel This instru-
ment is plajred upon by shtuiff before it, as
before the keys of a harpsichord, turning
the spindle vmh the foot, and wetting the
glasses, now and dien, with a sponge and
clean water. The fingere should be first
soaked in water, and rubbed occasionally
with fine chalk, to make them catch the
riaaB,and bring out the tone more readily.
iHfiferent narts may be played together by
using both hands ; and the tones are best .
drawn out when the glasses turn fix>m the
ends of the fingers, not when they turn to
them. The advantages of this instrument,
says doctor Franklin, are, that its tones are
incomparably sweet, beyond those of any
other, and that they may be sweUed or
softened at pleasure, by stronger or weaker
meesures of the fin^r, and continued to any
length ; and when it is once tuned, it neveV
wants tuning again. From the effect which
it is supposed to have upon the nervous sys-
tem, it has been suggested that the fingers
should not be allowed to come in imme*
diate contact %vith the glasses, but that the
tones should be produced by means of a
key, as upon the harpsichord. Such a
key has been invented in Berlin or Dres-
den, and an histrument constructed on
this plan. It is called the harptithord"
harmomccu But these experiments have
not produced any thing of much value ;
and It is impossible that the delicacy, the
swell and the continuation of the tone
should be carried to such perfection as in
the first mentioned method. The har-
monica, however much it exeels aB other
instruments in the delicacv and duration
of its tones, yet is confined to those of a
soft and melancholy character, and to slow,
solemn movements, and can hardly be
combined to advantage with other instru-
ments. In accompanying the human
voice, it throws it in tlie shade ; and in con-
certs, die accompanying instruments lose
in effect, because so for inferior to it in
tone. It is therefore best enjoyed by itself,
and may produce a charming effect, in cer-
tain romantic situations. Besides the proper
haraionica, there is a pegged or naned
hannonica, the pegs of which are of steel,
and, being placed in a semicircle, are played
with a strung bow. This has no resem-
blance to the proper haimonica, except
some nmilarity in tone.

Harmont ; 1. a tovm in the western
part of Penneylvania, where Rapp first
settled vrith his Harmonists fiom Wfir-
temberg, in 18CK3L He afterwards removed
to Indiana, but has emce returned asain to
Pennsylvania, with his 700 folfowen,

HARMONY—UARMOTOME.

fHiere he founded the village of Economy.
Tlie Uannonists are fiu^ and industrious,
and hold their propeitjr in common. (See
12a0p.)— 3. A village in Indiana, on the
Waoaah, about 25 miles from its mouth,
founded by Rapp. Mr. Owen's society
afterwards attempted to cany the new
social system into execution here, but it is
now broken up. (See Oweru)

Habmont (nomthe Greek); the agree-
ment or consonance of two or more
united sounds. Harmomf is either natural
or artificial. Mihiral harmomf, properly
so called, consists of the harmonic triad,
or common chord, t^jijfieial harmomf is
a mixture of concords and discords, bear-
ing relation to the harmonic triad of the
fbndamental note. The word harmomf
being originally a proper name, it is not
easy to determine the exact sense in which
it was used by the Greeks ; but from the
treatises they have left us on the subject,
we have great reason to conclude that
they limited its signification to that agree-
able succession of sounds which we call
air, or mdodv. The moderns, however,
do not di^iniQr a mere succession of single
sounds with the appellation of harmomf :
for the formation ot harmomf, they require
a union of melodies, a succession of com-
bined sounds, composed of consonant in-
tervals, and moving according to the stated
laws of modulation.

HuiMOirr, or Evanokucal Harmony,
is the title of various books, composed to
show the uniformity and agreement of the
accounts siven by the four evanselistB, by
veducing me events recorded m the difier-
ent evangelists to the order of time in
which they happened.

Harmont, FieuRED. Figured harmomf
is that in which, for the purpose of melo-
dy, one or more of the parts of a compo-
sition move, during the continuance cSf a
choni, throuji^h certain notes which do not
form any of the constituent parts of tliat
chord. These intermediate notes not be*
ing reckoned in the harmony, considerable
judgment and skill are necessary so to
dis^Me them that, while the ear is gratified
with their succession, it may not be offend-
ed at their dissonanee with respect to the
harmonic notes.

Harmoitt of the Spheres ; a hypothe-
sis of Pythacoras and his school, according
to which me motions of the heavenly
bodies produced a music imperceptible
by the ears of mortals. He supposed
these motions to conform to certain fixed
laws, which could be expressed in num-
bers, corresponding to the numbers whkh
give the harmony of sounds. The im-

mortal Kepler, in his Harmonieet Myndi,
endeavors to apply the Pythagorean ideas
on numbeiB and musical intervals to as-
tronomy, and in this work, as also in his
Pro dr omua, sets forth eternal laws respect-
ing the distances of the planets, which
were not fully appreciated, until Newton,
a long time after, snowed their importance
and connexioiL It is in the Hcarmonices
Mundi,pro€miium to the 5th book, De Mo-
tilnu Ptanekarum, that Kepler, in his enthu-
siasm, pronounces these, oold words con-
cerning his discovery : ^ Elighteen months
ago, I saw the first ray of light; three
months since, I saw the dtnr ; a few days
ago, I saw the sun himself of most ad-
tmrable beauty. Nothing can restrain me ;
I yield to the sacred &nzy. I dare in-
genuously to confess, that I have stolen the
golden vessels of the Egyptians (alluding
to the ideas of Ptolemy on the same sub-
ject), and vrill build of them a tabernacle
to my God. If you pardon me, I rejoice ;
if you reproach me, I can endure it ; the
die is thrown. I write a book to be read ;
whether by the present or future ages,
it matters not. It can wait for a reiser
a cenniry, if God himself waited six
thousand ycuns for an observer of his
woiks.*^ To understand this enthusiasm
fiilly, we must recollect the erroneous
ideas with which the world had teemed
firom the time of Ptolemy.

Harmont, Preestabushxd. (SeeLetfr-
nOz.)

Harmotome, or Cross-stone ; the
name of a substance curious in minendo-
piy, on account of the cruciform figure of
Its crystals, and the pecufiarity of its com-
position. It sometimes occurs in right
rectan^lar prisms terminated by four
rhombic planes, corresponding to the solid
angles of the misms ; but more fi:equendy
in twin-cxystfJs formed by the intersection
of two flattened prisms at right angles to
each other, and m such a manner that a
common axis and acumination is formed.
The crystals yield to cleavage parallel to
the planes and both diagonals of a right
rectangular prism, which is their primary
form. Its prevailing color is white ; it is
translucent or serm-tran^Muent, with a
somewliat pearly lustre, and hard enough
to scratch glass. Specific gravity 2.3^
It consists of silex 49.00, alumme 16.00,

* 8i ignoteitit, gaudebo ; ri tueceruetitf fe-
ram ; Jacio en aleam, Ubrumque tcribo, »eu pre-
sentibus sen posUris UgenSuHf nihU interest;
erpectet ille natm Uctoremper annot centum ; si
Deua ipse per annorum sena mxUia contemptato-
rem prtestolatus est. Joannis^ Kepleri Har-
monices Mundi, Lihri v. LincU, Auttrim^
MDCXIX. *

HARMOTOME— HAROLD U.

173

buytes laOO, and water 15X)0. It chiefly
oecuTB in melalKfenMis vein% as at Andre-
asberg, in the Hartz, and at Strontian in
Scotland* It has abo been found in
amygdaloid at Oberatein.

Harms, Klaua, archdeacon of Kiel,
celebrated as a preacher and author, bom
May 25, 1778, at Fahratedt, a village in
HcJstein, was the son of a miller. 1^11
his twelftti year, he studied in the yillaffe
school, after which he learned the rum-
ments of the Latin and Greek lamniages,
fiom the preacher of the village. He was
then obliged to attend to the mill and to
the &rm. From his seventeenth year,
when his father died, he assumed the du-
ties of the head of the fiunily. In his
nineteenth year, his mother having sold
the mill, he entered the school at Meldorf^
in Ditmaish, studied, 1799, at Kiel, and
became a tutor. In 1806, he was chosen
by the society at Lunden, in North Dit-
maiah, deacon, and, in 1816, wai4 elected
archdeacon at Kiel. As a pulpit orator,
he is eminent ; his words flow with ease
and ftcility, often rushing, powenRil and
eoersetic, as a torrent, and his style is
simpR, original and perspicuous. All
clasaes of hearere, the learned as well as
the rustic, listen with edification to his
preaching. He has published Summer
and Winter Sermons, and The 95 Tlieseis
of Doctor Martin Luther, with 95 other
Positions accompanying them, by KL
Harms (Kiel, 18171 in which he exposes
many defects of the Protestant church.
He is also the author of many other
works.

Haefebb. (See MaU,)

Harold I, Harfiigar (fiiir-hajred) ;
king of Norway, son of Hafdan the
Black ; one of the greatest monarchs of
that country. At the time of his fiuher's
death (863^ he was in tiie Dofrefield
mountains, and had already evinced great
talent and personal prowess in several
battles. Love made him a conqueror.
He had oftered his hand to Gida, the
dau^ter of a neighboring king; but the
proud beauty rephed to Harold's ambas-
sadors, that Ske would only consent to be-
come his wife when he had subjected aU
Norway. Harold swore he would not
cut his hair tiU he had accomplished
Gida's desire, and, in ten years, succeeded
in obtaining sole possession of Norway.
In the mean tiine, his hair had grown
long and beautiful, from which circum-
stance he derived his surname. While he
reduced the lesser kings, he left them, with
the title jori, the adminislntion of th«r
territCMies, and the third part of their in-
15*

come ; but many of them emigrated and
founded Norwegian colonies. Hrolf, or
RoUo, emigrated to Neustria (France).
Others, wiUi their followers, established
themselves in Iceland, the Shetland Isles,
Faroe and the Qrcades, all which were
then uninhabited. When Harold found
that die emigrants oflvn extended their
incursions into his dominions, he embark-
ed, with a naval force, to subdue them.
After a bloody war, he conquered Scot-
land, the Orcades, &c., and returned
home. He fixed his rendence at Dron-
theim, and died there in 990, after having
raised his countrv to a prosperous state,
by vrise lavrs and the encouragement of
oonmierce.

Harold I, suraamed Hartfooi, king of
EIngland, succeeded his father, Canute, in
10^ notwithstanding a previous agree-
ment, that the sovereignty of En^and
should descend to the issue of Canute by
his second wife, the Norman princess Em-
ma. His countrymen, the Danes, main-
tained him upon the throne against the ef-
forts of «ul uodwin, in fovor of Hardica-
nute ; but, Harold gaining over that leader
by the promise of marrying his daughter, a
conopromise was effected, and they united
to enect the murder of princeAlfred, son to
Etheldred II. Afler a reign of four years,
in which nothingmemoraUe occurred,
Harold died, in 1^.

Harold II, king of England, was the
second son of Godwin, earf of Kent He
succeeded his father in his government
and great offices, and, upon the death of
Edward the Confessor, m 1066, stepped
without opposition into the vacant throne,
without attending to the more legal claim of
Edgar Atheling, or the asserted bequest of
Edward in fiivor of the duke of Normandy.
The latter immediately called upon him to
reffign the crown, and, upon his refbsal,
prepared for invasion. He also instigated
Harold's brother, Tosti, who had retired
in disgust to Flanders, to infost the northern
coasts of England, in conjunction with the
king of Norway. The united fleet of
these chiefr saikd up the Humber, and
landed a numerous body of men, who
defeated the opposing forces of the earis
of Northumberland and Mercia, but were
totally routed by Harold, whose brother,
Tosti, fell in the battle. He had scarcely
tune to breathe after this victory, before he
heard of the landing of the duke of Nor-
mandy at Pevensey. in Sussex. Hasten-
ing thither, with all the troops he could
muster, a seneral engagement ensued at
Hastinfls, Oct 14, 1066, m which thisspir-
ited pnnce, after exerting every effort of

174

HAROLD n-4IARP.

valor and military aki^ was alaiD yvith an
anow ; and the crown of Finglnnd waa
the immediate fruit of William's victory.

Haeoun, or Aaron al Rasbid, a cel-
ebrated caliph of the Saracens, was the sec-
ond son of tne caliph Mahadi. He succeed-
ed his elder brother, Hadi, in the caliphate
A. D. 786, and was the most potent jn-iiioe
of his nice, ruling over tenitoriea extend-
ing from Egypt to Korasan. He ob-
tamed the name of Al Rashid, or the Just,
but his claim to the title must be r^arded
with considerable allowance for Astern
notions of deqK>tic justice. One of his
noblest qualities was his love of learning
and science. He caused many Greek and
Latin authors to be trandated and dis-
persed throu(;hout his empire, and
made his subjects acquainted vnth the
Ihad and the Odyssey. He eight times
invaded the Greek empire, and, on the
refusal of the emperor Nicephorus, in 803,
to pay tribute, addressed to him a singu-
larly airogaut epistle, and followed it up
by an irruption into Greece, wliich
terminated in the defeat of Nicephorus,
who was obliged to pay an auinnented
tribute, and agree not to rebuild Her-
aclea and the other pillaged and dilapi-
dated frontier towns. During these
transactions, the ruin of the ftmily
of the Barmecides exemplified the des-
potic rigor of Haroun's character. Yahia,
the hef^ of it, had superintended his edu-
cation ; and of his four sons, the eldest
was a successful general ; the second, the
caliph^ prime vi2ier, Giafrer; and the
third and fourth in dignified stations.
The generooty, munificence and af&bUity
of the Barmecides, rendered them the
delif^t of all ranks of people ; and GiafiTer
was so much in his mastei^s graces, that
die caliph, in order to enjoy his company
in the presence of his sister Abaasa, to
whom he was equally attached, formed a
maniaffe between the princess and vizier,
but witn the capricious restriction of their
fi»twaring the privileeee of such an union.
Passion broke through this unjust prohibi-
tion, and the caliph, in his revenge, pub-
licly executed Giafrer, and confiscated the
property cft the whole ftmily. Haioun
attamed the summit of worldly power
and prosperity, and the French historians
mention a splendid embassy which he
sent to Chariemagne, which, among other
presents, brought a magnificent tent, a
water-clock, an elephant, and the kevs of
the holy sepulchre at Jerusalem, implying
a permission fbr European pilgrims to
visit it. Haroun was seized with a mortal
distemper, while on the point of march-

ing 10 put down a rebellion in the prov-
inces beyond the Oxus ; and, retiring to
Tous, in Korasan, expired in the 47th
year of his age, and 23d of his reign.
The popular fame of this caliph is evinc
ed by the Arabian Nights' Entertainments,
in which Haroun, his wife Zobeide, his vi-
zier Giafier, and his chief eunuch Mesrour,
are fi^qnent and conspicuous characters.

Harp ; a stringed instrument, con^st-
ing of a triangular frame, and the chords
of which are distended in parallel direc-
tions firom the u[^r part to one of its
aides. Its scale extends through the com-
mon compass, and the strings are tuned
by semitonic intervals. It stands erect,
and, when used, is placed at the feet of
the performer, who produces its tones by
the acltion of the thumb and fingers of
both hands on the strings. The ancients
had a triangular instrument, called trigo-
niim, corresponding somewhat to our
harp. Some authors say that it came
ori^nally fi!om the Svrians, fh>m whom
the Greeks borrowed it. The ancient
Honbuca is believed by some to corre-
fipond to the harp. Some writers say that
the harp came to us from the nations of
the nortn of Europe, in whose languages
they trace its etymology. Papias and Du
Cange assert that the harp derives its
name from the .^nM, a people of Italy,
Who invented it; but Galileo maintains
that the Italians received it fiom the Irisii.
Whatever may have been its origin, its
invention is very ancient. It was known
to the Effvptians, as appears fiiom tlie
travels of Bruce and Denon. The four
harps, of which the latter traveller has
given drawings, are almost the same in
shape as ours. The two fiiBt have 21
strings, the third 18, and the fourth only
4. The designs are from the paintings
found in the tombs of the kings, in the
mountain west of Thebes. TheHebre wh,
the Greeks and the Romans appear to
have made particular use of this instru-
ment The ivory harp, with seven
strings, belonged to the Greeks, who,
however, neglected it The Romans pre-
served the use of it a long time in sacri-
fices. The harp was much played in
France m the time of chivalry. Tho
Anglo-Saxons excelled in playing on the
harp, which they generally accompanied
with the violin and the comicinus. The
ancient Irish, Scotch and Welsh also
made much use of this instrument, and
the han> figures conspicuoudy in the
arms of Ireland. The Anglo-Nonnans
also were skilful perfomieni on this instru>
ment Strutt in his England, Ancient

HAKP-4IARP£R.

17$

and Modem, has giwn dnwmsB of the
faaips used by the peode of Uie Nordi
about the 9lh centuiy. They are trienga-
hr, like ouib, but have only 10 or 12
su^igB. Id the 19th coDttury, the harp
had onl^ 17 atrings, aa appears fiom a
manuscript of the tune, cited and analys-
ed by Lebeuf (Menu dc r^cadenne de$ In-
icr^ torn., xx, page 377). No inatnunent
has received greater improvement fiom
modem arttats tfian tfai& In its present
state, while it forma one of the most ele-
gant objects to the eye, it produces some
of the most agreeable effects to the ear,
of any instrument in practice.

Habp, ^oliait. (See JEoUan Harp*J

Uaapagus; a Mode, minister of long
Aatyages, who ordered him to put Gyms
to death. As he did not obey this com-
mand, Astyages invited him to a banquet,
at wiudi die body of his own sou was
served up before him ; at least, so Qerodo-
018 telk us. (See Cyrus, and ,^ttyages^

Ha&pe, Jean Francis de la. (See La-
hamyJ,Fr.de.)

HiLBFE, Frecteric Ciesar la. (See Za-
fcarpe, /V. Cemt.)

Haifes, Robert Croodloe, was bora
near FVedericksburg, Virginia, of poor,
out raspectable parents, who, while he
was very youn^, emigrated to Granville,
in North Carohna. He dkplayed, in his
boyhood, vivacity of npirit and veraa^
ti&y of taient, and, before the age of
15, posMBod the rudiments of a uberal
education, a various fund of profitable
ideaa^ and an expertness in the use
of tools, which would have made him a
successful mechanic. The ardor and
gallantly of his character prompted him,
at that ace, to join a troop of horse, com-
posed of the young men of the neighbor-
hood, to wiudh he acted as quarter-master,
and with them he participated iff€rreene's
canipaign ; but his thirst for learning and
InieUecmal culture soon induced bun to
withdraw fiom &e mihtaiy career, and
seek some situation in which he could
complete his studies. He procured ad-
mission into Princeton college, where he
taught one or two of the iimirior cl&ases,
whue he gained instraction and distinc-
tion in the upper. About the age of 19
or 20^ he accompanied a Mow student to
Pliikidelpfaitt, on a visit, and here form-
ed the resolution to embaik, at once, fi>r
Endand, and make the tour of Europe
on foot He mtended to begin vnth giv-
ing lessons in London, and to work simul-
taneously at the trade of a joiner, for
which he was qualified bf his earir prac-
tice. This romantic project was frustrat-

ed by ice in the Delaware, that prevented
the departure of any vessel duraig many
weeks, in the course of which the youth-
ful adventurer nearly exhausted his purse,
and had leisure to reflect upon the diffi-
Ctthies of the enterprise. As soon as the
river became navigable, he resolved to
sail for Charieston, and try his fortune
there, his new scheme being to study the
law. He arrived, after a short passage, at
that city, and found himself on tlie wharf,
a stranger to every one, with but a dollar
or two in his pockets. As he stood ru-
minating on his condition, he was accost-
ed by a man of respectable appearance,
who asked him whether he had not taught
a class at Princeton college, in which
there was a youth of a certain name ; and,
being answered affirmatively, he pro-
ceeded to say that the youth was his son,
who had rendered him famiHar witli the
name of his tutor by the affectionate testi-
mony often repeated in his letters. He
professed a strong desire to serve his new
acquaintance, mentioned that he kept a
tavern, and offered him a^ assistance
which he might require, llie welcome
kindness vna accepted: the generous
friend introduced him to a lawyer, under
whom he prepared himself for the same
profession; and, in less than a twelve-
month, he undertook causes on his own
aocount The hope of speedier success
in lus profession mduced him to retire
ftom Charleston to an interior distiict;
and in this residence he first acquired
some political consideration by a series of
essays, in a newspaper, on a proposed
change of the constnution of the state ;
and he was soon elected into the legisla-
ture. The reputation which he gained, as
a speaker and man of bunness, soon plac-
ed him in congress. It is unnecessary to
follow him, in his legislative coiuse of
eight or nine years, from the commence-
ment of the French revolution to the
year 1802, when the democratic party bad
succeeded to tiie natiO|)al gqverament. In
the importance of events and discussions,
the excitement of parties, the talents of
leaders, the difficulties of action, the period
just mentioned may be termed the most
remukable in our independent annals.
Such men as Marshal, Madison, Griles,
Nicholas, Ttecy, Ames, Griswold, Bayord,
Gallatin, exerted their various powers to
tiie utmost, in congress ; and among them
Mr. Harper was constantly seen the equal
adversary or coadjutor of the ablest. He
nded with the federalists, and zealously
supported the poUcy and measures or
Wiiahington, of^ whom he was the per*

176

HARPER.

8onal fiiend, as he was abo of Hanuhon,
and odien of the principal federal states-
mefL Many yean afterwanb, he collected
into an octavo volume a portion of his
ciroulan and add rcaaca to lus constituentB,
and a few of his speeches, as they were
printed while he was a representative.
These attest the vigor of his tacuhies, the
depth of his views, and the extent of his
knowledge. No member of the national
councils was better acquainted with the
foreign relations of his countiy, and the
affiiirs of Europe, or could discuss them
in a more instructive, argumentative and
fluent strain. His pamphlet, published in
1797, and entitled Observations on the
Dispute between the United States and
France, acquired great celebrity at home,
passed rapidly through several editions in
England, and was esteemed, over Europe,
one of the ablest productions of the crisis.
The speeches which he delivered in his
capacity of manager of the impeachment
against Blount, on the question whether a
senator of Ae U. States be liable to impeach-
ment, and his aipmient on the constitu-
tional powere of the president and senate
relative to the appointment of forei^
ministera, are specimens of his capacity m
the examination of constitutional points.
Soon after the downfall of the federal par-
ty^ he retired from oonjeress, and, having
mairied the daughter of the distinguishea
patriot diaries cSirroU of Carolhon, resum-
ed the practice of the law in Baltimore,
where he soon became eminent in his
profession. Judge Chase, when impeach-
ed bv the house of representatives, en-
gaged Mr. Harper fer nis defence, and
committed to mm the duty of preparing
his full answer to the articles of impeach-
ment The victorious answer, a master-
piece in all respects, was thought to be
the woric of the judge himself, and excited
a lively admiration of the supposed
author's powere; but he furnished to-
wards it onlv a few manuscript pages of
loose heads, leading topics, most of which
were either omitted, or essentially modi-
fied. It was mainly supplied and wholly
composed by his mend and counsellor,
who, in concurrence with two distin-
guished colleagues, Luther Martin and
Joseph Hopkinson, defended him before
the senate. Mr. Harper attended almost
every session of the supreme court, from
the time of its removal to Washin^on to
that of his deatii, and was always listened
to with respect by the court His style
of sneaking was animated, neat, suffi-
ciently fluent, and uncommonly perniicu-
ous. Juries especially felt the combined

influence of bis clear, natural tones, shn-
pie, easfy gesture, lucid annangement and
impressive exposition of fa^ and his
fecility in qiplying general principles, and
deducini^ motives or conseauences at the
exact pomt of time. Mr. Harper did not
sufl^ his taste for literature to languish.
He was a diligent reader of belles-lettres,
of history, geoffiaphy, travels and alatisticB.
He was versed in the sciences of morals
and government, and was particularly
well acquainted with political economy,
and well knew how to use, in his puUic
addresses, the stores with which his excel-
lent memory readily supplied him. The
federal par^ happening to acquire the as-
cendant in Maryland, Mr. Harper was im-
mediately elected, by the legisbture, a
senator in congress; but this position the
demands of his profession obliged him
soon to rehnquisl). The same councils
bestowed upon liim the rank of major-
general in the militia. About the yeara
1819 — ^SiO, he set out for Europe unth a
part of his femily, and visited, m succes-
sion, England, France and Italy. He was
absent from home neariy two years. Fa-
vorable circumstances, and his own repu-
tation and merit, procured for him access
to many of the most renowned person-
ages and brilliant circles, both of Great
Britain and the continent Durinr the
few years between his return and death,
he employed himself chiefly in plans of a
public character, such as the |»t>motion
of internal improvement and the coloiuza-
tion of the blacks. - He delij^ted in topo-
oraphical and geographical studies; and
the particular notice which he had be-
stowed upon Afiican geography served,
besides his pMlanthropic z(«l, to draw him
into the scheme of African colonization.
In private life, general Harper had signal
virtues and attractions. His relatives and
friends knew well the warmth and tender-
ness of his heart, and the generosity of
his disposition. He administered aid,
praise and sympathy wherever .they were
due. He Kved witii elegant hospitality,
and enjoyed the company of the younr
and gay. In conversation, he exceUec^
perhaps, even more than he did in puUic
roeakm^. He made a liberal estimate of
the motives and qualities of his political
antagonists. He never avoided social in-
tercourse with any as such, but mixed
with them in the kindest temper. For
the leaden and principles of the federal
party he retained a profound esteem,
immediately after the inauguration of
Mr. Jefferson, he vindicated their meas-
ures, and predicted the final adoption of

HARPER— HARPOON

177

their whole policy, in an elaborate biatori-
cal aurrey, addreeaed to hia conatituenta.
Hia awom oairative and ezplaaatioDa of
the conduct of thoae who Toied for colo-
nel Buir, in oongreaa, in ISOl, and hia
piinted Letters, in refiitation of Mr. Mon-
loe'a chargea, evince further the deep con-
cern which he took in the reputadon of
the fedeFoliatB and the cauae of truth.
General Harper waa above the middle
flize, well abaped, muacular and robuat;
of erect, firm gait; of regular featurea and
expreaaiye countenance, and of active
habitB. Hia conatitudon waa atrong and
equal to fittigue, bodily or mental, until
the laat two years, after he had underaone
a aevere attack of the bilious fever. .Thia
enfeebled and extenuated hia frame, and
entailed upon him, or was followed by, a
dangeroua affection, called angma pedortB^

which kiUa suddenly, and when the iia^
tient may appear, and auppoee himaeli to
be, in good healtL Agamat this fcmnida-
ble enemy, he employe a strict diet and
regimen, and much ezerciae in the open
air, and at length believed it to be sub-
dued. Being engaged in a v^ important
cause, in the aecond week in Januaiy,
1825, in one of the Baltimore courts, he
finished hia a]|;ument in the morning of
die 14th. The next momin^, he bxeak-
fiffited in good appetite and spirits, and, on
rising fi»m the table, stood near the fire,
with a newspaper in his hand. In a few
minutes, he waa perceived to be fidling,by
hia son, who caught him in hia anna, but,
are medical aid could be procured, he was
dead. He waa 60 years of a^.

Ha&p£e's Fsaar; a poat-vdlage in Jef-
ferson county, Viri^nia, at the junction of
the Shraiandoah with the Potomac ; it ia
^bt miiea E. N. E. of Charieston, and
65 W. N. W. of Washington. The cele-
brated paasace of the Fotomac, at thia
place, ia an object truly grand and magnifi-
cent. The eye takea in, at a glance, on
the north aide of the Potomac and Shen-
andoah, at their junction, an impetuous
totreatj foaming and daahing over numer-
ous rocka, which have tumbled from pre-
cipicea that overhang them; the pictur-
eaque tops and sides of the mountains, the
aende and winding cunrent of the river
below the ridge, presenting, altogether, a
landacape capable of awakening the most
delightml and sublime emotions. ^'This
scene," says Mr. Jefferaon, ^is worth a
▼ojage across the Atlantic.'' There ia at
tfan place, belonging to the U. States,
a very extensive eAabliahment for the
manuracture of arms. It waa founded in
1796, and now empbys about 960 work-

men. There are ei^t large brick build-
inga, six on the Potomac, luid two on the
Shenandoah, two nules distant, occupied
by the worka ; also two larffe brick build-
ings, occupied as an arsend. The village
contains about 1000 inhabitants.

Harpies (jApirvMi, Greek) ; the rapacious
goddeases or storms. Their ages, appear-
ance, namea and number, are so difl^ntiy
given by the Poets, that it ia difficult to say
any thing dennite concerning them. They
are represented, by Homer, as residing
near the Erinnyes, on the ocean, before
the jaws of hell, and as goddesses of
storms. If any one waa ament so long
fixnn home, that it waa not known what
had become of him, and he was supposed
to be dead, it waa commonly said, *' The
harpies have carried him off." Hesiod
represents them as young virsins, of great
beauty. The later poets and artists vied
with each other in aepicting them under
the most hideous forms. One has given
them the head of a ben, with winffi, and
a body covered with feathers, human
arms, with claws, a white breast and hu-
man ietp, which terminate in the feet of a
hen. OtheiB have given them the face of
a young woman, with the ears of a bear.
Spanheim's woik contains three represen-
tations of the harpies, from coins and
works of art, with the claws andbodiesof
birds. The first has a coarse female &ce;
the second a completely feminine head,
and two breasts ; the third a visage orna-
mented with vneaths and a head-dress.
T%ere are also other representations ot
them. Leclerc supposes that they are an
allegorical description of the noi^ flight,
the destruction, the stench and the con-
tamination of locusts.

Harpockatks ; the god of silence among
the Egyptians ; a son of Iris and Osiris.
Ifis statues represent him as holding one
of his fingers on his mouth. They ap-
pear at the entrance of most of the Roman
and Egyptian temples.

Hakpoon. The harpo<m is an histru-
ment of iron, of about three feet in length.
It consists of three conjoined parts, called
the sockd, shank and mouth, the latter of
which includes the barhs, or wUhtn. This
instrument, if we except a small addition
to the barbs, and some enlargement of di-
mensions, maintains the same form in
which it was originally used in the fishery
two centuries ago. At that time, the
mouth, or barbed extremity, was of a tri-
angular shape, imited to the shank in the
middle of one of the sides, and this, being
Ecroped out on each side of the shank,
formed two simple flat barbs. In the

178

HARPOON— HARPSICHORD.

ooune of the last oentuiy, an improve-
ment was made, by adcKnff another small
baib, reaemMing the beard of a fiah-hook,
within each of the former withers, in ar&-
▼erae position. The two principal with-
eiB, in the (nvsent improved harpoon,
measure about eight inches in length and
six in breadth ; the shank is eighteen inch-
es to two feet in length, and four tenths of
an inch in diameter ; and the socket, which
is hoUow, swells fiom the size of the shank
to near two inches m diameter, and is about
six inches in length. To this weapon is
ftsten^ a long cord, called the trftafe-fme,
whkh lies carefully coiled in the boat, in
such a manner as to run out without being
interrupted or entangled. As soon as the
boat has been rowed within a competent
distance of the vrhale, the harpooner
launches his instrument ; and the fish, be-
mg wounded, immediately descends under
the ice with amazing rapidity, carryinff the
harpoon along with nim, and a considem-
ble length of the line, which is purposely
let down, to give him room to mve. Be-
ing soon exhausted with the fatigue and
loss of blood, he reascends, in order to
breathe, where he presently expires, and
floats upon the surface of the water ; when
the whalers approach the carcass t^
drawing in the whale-line. The line is 60
to 70 iShoms long, and made of the fin-
est and softest hemp, that it ma^ slip die
eaaer ; if not well watered, by its fiiction
against the boat it would soon be set on
fire ; and if not sufficiend^ long, the boat
would be soon overset, as it frequently is.
With the harpoon, other large fish, as
stufveons, &c., afe also caught When
the harpoon is fi>rced, by a blow, into the
6t of the whale, and the line is held tight,
the principal withers seize the strons liga-
mentous nbres of the blubber, and pre-
vent it from being withdrawn ; and, in the
event of its being puUed out so ftr as to
remain entangM by one wither only,
which is finequendy the case, then the lit-
tle reverse barb, or tlUrp wUher, as it is
called, collecting a number of the same
redculated sinewy fibres, which are very
numerous near the skin, prevents the har-
poon from being shaken out by the ordi-
naiy motions of the whale. The point aiMl
exterior edges of the barbs of the harpoon
are sharpened to a rough edge, by means
of a file. This part of the harpoon is not
formed of steel, as it is finequendy repre-
sented, but of common, soft iron, so diat,
when blunted, it can be readily sharpened
by a file, or even by scraping it with a
kiiife. The most important part in the
construction of tJm instrument, is ttie

As diis part m liable to be fbrcil^
and suddenly extended, twisted and bent,
it requires to be made of the softest and
most pliable iron.

Hearpoon-Ciun. The harpoon-gun is
weU calculated to facilitate the capture of
whales, under particular ciroumstancee, es-
pecially in calm weather, when the fbh
are apt to take the alarm at the wproach
of boats within 15 or 20 yards of^ them.
The harpoon gun was invented in the
year 1731, and used by some individuals
with success. Being, however, somewhat
difficult and dangerous in its application,
it was laid aside for many years. It has^
however, subsequendy been hi^ly im-
proved, and rendered capaUe of dirowing
a harpoon nearly 40 yards, with efiect ;
yet, on account of the address ^ich is
requisite for the proper management of it,
and the loss of fish which, in unskilful
hands, it has been die means of occasion-
ing, together with some accidents which
have resulted from its use, it has not been
so generally adopted as might have been
expected. In its present Improved form,
the harpoon-gun consosls of a kind of
swivel, having a barrel of wrought iron,
24 to 26 inches in lensth, of 3 inches ex-
terior diameter, and 1} inches bore. It is
furnished vrith two locks, which act si-
multaneously, for the purpose of diminish-
ing the liability of the gun missing fire.
The slmnk of me harpoon fired from it is
double, terminating in a cylindrical knob,
fitting the bore of the guiL Between the
two parts of the shank a wire ring slideB
freely, to which is attached the line.
When the harpoon is introduced into the
barrel of the gun, the ring with the attach-
ed line slides up, and remains on the out-
side, near the mouth of the harpoon ; but,
the instant that it is fired, the rinf , of
course, flies back against the cylindrical
knob. Some harpoons have been lately
made with a single shank, similar to the
common hand harpoon, but swell at the
end to the thickness of the bore of the
gun. The line, closely spliced round the
shank, is slipped tomrds the mouth of
the hfupoon, when it is placed in the gun,
and, when fired, is prevented &om disen-
gaging itself by the size of the knob at the
end. (For fiiither information, see ff%ale-
FHshcry,)

Harpsichord ; a stringed instrument,
consisting of a case framed of mahogany,
or walnut-tree wood, and containing the
belly, or sounding-board, over which the
wires are distended, supported by bridges.
In the front the keys are disposed, the long
ones of which are the naturals, and tbs

IIABPSICHiMU)— HARRIS.

179

abort cmes the ahaips and flats. These
keya being preased by the fingefB, their
enclosed extremities raise little upright ob-
kmg slips of wood, called jaekif fiiniished
with crow-quill plectrumSi which strike
the wires. The |neat advaDtage of the
hupeichonl beyoiid most other stringed
instrumeniBy consisis in its capaci^ of
sounding many notes at once, and unrm-
ing those combinations, and petrforming
those evolutions of hannony, which asin-
de instrument cannot conunand. This
mstrument, called by the Italians davir
ceadHdoj by the French dooeciii, and in
Latin m»e cmhalvmy is an improvement
upon me danchord, which was borrowed
mm the harp, and has, for more than a
century, been in the highest esteem, and
in the most general use, both public and
private, throughout Europe; but, since
the invention of that fine instrument, the
grand piano-forte, the use of it has con-
siderably diminished.

Haeouebuss (in the ancient statutes
called alao orjiiefrttf , haqudniij or hof^nU)
is a hand-gun, or fire^urm, of a proper
length, &€., to be borne on the aim. The
word is fonned of the French orgiiefrtae,
and that from the Italian archtSnuOy or or-
co a huo (of orco, a bow, and hmo^ a holel
on account of the touch-hole, at whicn
powder is put to prime it, and the circum-
stance of its having succeeded to the bows
of the ancients. The harquebuss is, prop-
eriy, a fire-arm, of the ordinaiy length of
a musket or fi)w]ing-piece, codLed, usual-
ly, with a wheeL Hanzelet describes its
legitimate leng& to be 40 calibres, and the
weight of its Ml one ounce seven-eighths ;
its diaige of powder as much. There is
also a luger kmd, called armtdmst h croc,
much of the nature of our olunderiiiusBes.
This was used, in time of war, to defend
places, being usually rested on something
when discharged. The first time these
instnunents were seen was in the imperial
anny of Bourbon, who drove Bonnivet
out of the state of Alilan. They vrere so
heavy, that two men we^ employed to
canvthem.

fiLiRBiifiyroif, James, a celebrated nolit-
ical writer, was bom at Upton, in Moith-
amptonshire, in 1611, and was educated at
Trinity college, Qxfind, under the care of
the celebrated Chillin^orth. On the
death of his Ather, he visited the Nether-
lands, where he entered lord Craven's reg-
iment, and, being quartered at the Hague,
fieqfuented the courts of the prince of Or-
ange and the queen of Bohemia, and ac-
companied the elector palatine to Den-
maiK. He subsequently visited Qeimany,

France and Italy ; and, (m his return to
England, siding with the parliamentaiy
party, in 1640, he accompanied their com-
misHi<Mien to Charles I at Newcasde, and,
on their recommendation, was appointed
groom of the stole to the king, in this
capacity, he never disguised Us republi-
can sentiments; yet he was desirous of
producing an accommodation betwee:i
Charles and the parliament ; which is sup-
posed to have produced his removal from
the kin^s person. During the protector-
ate, he paned his time in retirement, and
occupiea his leisure in writing his famous
woriL, Oceana ; which, after some opposi-
tion on the part of Cromwell, was pub-
lished in 165iS. In order to propagate his
opinions, he established a sort of club, or
debating socie^, called the roto, which
was terminated by the restoration. Be-
ing axrested for a supposed plot against
the government, of which he was entirely
innocent, he was treated with great sever-
ity, and his release by habeas corpus evad-
ed, by an arbitrary removal to St Nicho-
las island, near Plymouth. Here, either
fixnn distress of mind, or improper medi-
cal treatment, his fiiculties became imnair-
ed; which, being ropresented to the King
by his relations, led to his release. He
partly recovered, and married a lady to
whom he had been early attached. He
died, of paralysis, in 1677, and was buried
at St Margaret's, Westminster. Hairing-
ton was a profound thinker. His OceanOf
vdiich is a poHtical romance, and the Uto-
pian image of a republic, is a worit of
genius, thought and invention, and is
characterized by an enthusiastic love of
liberty. The writings of Hairington were
published (in one vdume, folio) by Tin-
dal, in 1700, and again, more completely,
by doctor Bireh, in 1737.

Hauiis, James, a learned writer on phi-
lolof^ and the philosophy of languajge,
was Mm at Saliabuiy, m 1709. Having
passed through his preliminaiy studies, he
entered as a gentleman commoner of
Wadharo college, Oxford, at the age of 16;
after which Ite became a probaBoner at
Lincok's Inn. The death of his ftther
put him in possession of an independent
fortune at the ape of 23 ; on which he re- <
tired to his native place, to dedicate his
time to classical literature. In 1744, be
publidied a volume, containing three trea-
tises,— On Art ; on Music and Painting;
and On Happiness. This was a prelude to
the most celebrated of his produclionB^
Hennes^ or a Philosophical Enquiiy con-
cerning Universal Qrammar. This work
displays much ingenuity, and an extensive

180

HASSIS-HARRIBON.

acquaintanoe with the writiiin of the
Greek poets and pfailosophen ; but the au-
thor^ ignorance of the ancient dialects of
uie noraiem nadoua has caused him to
take an imperfik*! survey of his subjecL
In 1761, he was chosen member of parlia*
ment, and held several public places. In
1775, he published Philosophical Ananj^
ments. part of a eystemadc work, which
he haa projected, as an illustration of the
Loffic of Aristotle. His concluding work,
Phuological Inquiries, was completed in
1780, but was not published till after his
death (December 2S2, 1780). A collective
edidon of his works was published by his
son, the earl of Malmesbuiy (2 vols. 4to.,
1801).

HARRiSBuae ; a borou^ in Daiuphin
county, and the seat of govenunent or the
state of Pennsylvania, on the east bank of
the Susquehannah, over which there is
here erected a covered bridge, of 12 arch-
es, which cost 190,000 dottanu The Penn-
sylvania canal passes along the
side of the town, and forms a large basin
for a haibor ; 35 miles W. N. W. Lancas-
ter, 96 W. by N. Philadelphia. Popular
tiQn,inl820, 2990; in 1830, 4307; and,
indudingthe adjoining village of McClays-
buig, 4526. The whole number of houses
in 1830 was 636 ; 431 of them fiame
houses, 201 of brick, and 4 of stone. Har-
hsburg is pleasantly situated, regularly
laid out, ana, in general, well buik. The
capitol is a spacious and elegant brick edi-
fice, situated on a considerable elevation,
on the outside of the town. From its cu-
pola is presented a fine landscape, em-
nracing a wide extent of cultivated coun-
try, the meanders of the river, swelling
hills, and the neighboring mountains.
The town contains a county couit-house,
a jail, two banks, a large Lancasteiian
school-house, capable of accommodating
1000 children ; 10 places of public wor-
ship, for Presbyterians, Lutherans, German
Reformed, Episcopalians, Roman Catho-
lics, MethodislB, Baptists,Unitarian6, United
Brethren, and Africans, one each ; and
eight printing-ofiices, fix>m six of which
newsmipen are issued, two of them in
the German language. It has also a
steam-mill, a variety of manu&cturing es-
tablishments, and is a place of conad-
«BUe trade. Fifty yean smce, Hanis-
kirg was a vrildemesi, inhabited by In-

Hamusou, Beniamin, a signer of the
declaration of independence, was of a
Highly respectable &mily in Virginia.
The date of his birth is not precise^
known. He was a student in the college

of Wmiam and Mary, when his ftdier and
two sisten were amukaneously killed by
a stroke of ligfatninj^. He went eariy into
public life (in wfawh his aaceston bad
lon^ been distinguished), commencing his
pohtical career, in 1764, as a member of
the legislature of his native province. The
eminence which he acouired in that ca-
pacity, combined with the influence natu*
rally accruing from fortune and distin-
guished fiunily connexions, rendered it an
object for the royal government to enli^
him in their fovor ; uid he was according-
ly offered a seat in the executive coun^
of Virginia,-^ stadon analogous to that
of a privy-counsellor in Enyand. This
was a tempting bait to an andntious young
man ; but as, even at that time, the meas-
ures of the British ministir indicated an
oppressive spirit, he refused the proffered
dignity, and always exerted his mfluence
for the benefit of the people. When the
time came for active resistance to the ar-
acts of the government, he was not
founcT backward. In the fost general
congress of 1774, he was a deiegaSiB, and
consecrated his name, by affixing it to that
declaration which can never be forgotten
as long as Uberty is wotshipped. It is re-
lated conceminff him, that| whilst sisning
the instrument, ne happened to stand near
Mr. Gerry, of Massachusetts, who was of
a slender and spare form, while he was
vei^ corpulent ; and, turning to him, afW
layuig down the pen, he said, in a face-
tious wav, ** When the time of hanging
comes, I shall have the advantage ovw
you. It win be over with me in aminute,
but you will be kicking in the air half an
hour afler I am ffone." Mr. Hanison was
particularly useral as chairman of the
board of war. After his resignation of his
seat, in 1777, he was elected to the house
of bu igosno s of Virginia, of which he wan
imme&tely chosen speaker. This situa-
tion he occupied until the year 1789;
when he vras made chief ma^psmte of
the state, and was twice reelected. In
1785, he retired into private life, but, in
1788, became a member of the convention
of Virginia that ratified the present consti-
tution of the United States. Of the first
committee appoinled by this body, that of
prinleges and elections, he was ^hosen
chairman ; but his age and infirmities pre-
vented him fiom taking an active part in
the debates. He, however, advocated the
adoption of the constimtion, with certain
amendments. He died, of the gout, in
1791.

Harsison, John; a skilfiil mechanic,
celebrated as the inventor of the time-

HAHRISDN— HART.

tei

keeper for ascertaining the lon^tnde at
sea, and also of the gridiron-penduhim.
He was bom at Foulby, near Pontefiract,
in Yorkshire, in 1693,* and was the son
of a caipenter or builder, who brought
him up to the same occupation. Be^re
he had attained the age of 21, he found
out, without instructR)n, how to clean
clocks and watches, and made two clocks,
chiefly of wood-work. In 1735, he exe-
cuted his first machine for determining the
longitude at sea, tlie merit of which he
proved in a voyage to Lisbon. In 1739,
he completed a second, and, in 1749, a
thivd machine, which erred only three
or four seconds in a week. He then
tnmed his attention to the improvement
of pocket watches, in which he succeeded
so well, that he was induced to make a
fourth machine, or time-keeper, in that
fbnn, which he finished in 1759. This
chronometer, in two voyaj^s, having been
found to correct the longitude within the
fimitB required by the act of parliament
of the V&h of queen Anne, Harrison ap-
plied for the proposed reward of £20,000,
which he received. This inffenious artist
employed the latter part of his life in con-
structing a fifth improved time-keeper, on
the same principle. This, after a ten
weeks' triaC was found to have erred only
four and a half seconds. He died in 1776.
He was the author of a tract, entitled a
Description concerning such Mechanism
as will afibrd a nice or true Mensuration
of Time (1775, 8vo.^

Harrowbt, Dudley Ryder, earl of^ was
bom in 17^, and educated at St John's,
Cambridge. He was elected member of
pariiameiit for Tiverton, and became con-
nected with Mr. Pitt and his party. In
1801, he was made treawirer of the navy,
in the Addington administration, and, on
Mr. Pitt's restoration to the head of the
ministry, in 1804, received the seals of
the foreign depardnent In 1812, he was
made president of the council — a place
which be held till the appointment of the
duke of Wellington to the premiership,
when he retired fit)m public life. He
was always an advocate of Catholic con-
cessions, and an active patron of the Brit-
ish and Foreign Bible Society. He was
created viscount Sandon and earl of Har-
rowby in 1809.

Harrow-on-the-Hill ; a village of
Enfftand, in Middlesex, situated on the
highest hill in the county, and command-
ing cne of the finest prospects of the
metropolis on the east It is famous for
its free school, founded in the reisn of
Elizabeth, by John Lyon, and still con-

VOL. VI. 16

ffldered one of tlie first in the kingdom.
Popidation of the parish, 3017 ; 10 miles
N, W. London. Doctor Parr, sir William
Jones, Sheridan, Byron, eari Spenser, sir
Robert Peel, &c., were educated tfaene.

Har8I>6rfer, George Philip, a distin-
guished scholar and poet of the 17th cen-
niry, lived fiom leffSf till 1658. He was
descended fit)m a patrician fimiily in N(i-
remberff, travelled through Holland, £ng-
kind, France and Italv, and acquired so
much knowledge of languages, that he
was called the kamed. He was also a
member of the high council at Nurem-
berg. His German and Latin works, his-
torical and literary, fill 47 volumes. Yet
he was neither a profound scholar nor a
poetical genius. His best songs are to be
found in his IVautniimmerfrespr&cken (Nfi-
rembeig, 1642, 8 vols.). With his friend
and poetical companion, John Klai (Cla-
jus), who was bom at Meissen, 1616, and
died (1656) at Kitzingen in Franconia,
where he was a preacher, he instituted at
Nuremberg, in 1644, the Order of Flowers,
or Society of Shepherds of the Pegnitz,
which is yet in existence. The purity of^
the German language was the object of
this society, which numbered prinses and
distinguished scholars among its members.
Klai's poems are partly in the collection
published by the Shepherds of the Pecnitz,
and have been partly published by mem-
selves.

Hart, John, a signer of the declaration
of independence, was bom in New Jereey,
and was the son of a fiurmer, who left him
a considerable estate, and whose occupa-
tion he followed. He was distinguished
for sound sense and integrity, and was
frequently chosen to the colonial legisla-
ture, in which he always eviuoed at-
tachjnent to hheral principles. In 1774,
** honest John Hart" as he was caUed, was
one of the first deputed from New Jersey
to the general congress at Philadelphia.
His moderation and cool judgment enabled
him to render valuable services ; and these,
combined with his zeal and inflexible rec-
titude and fimmesB, caused him to be
frequently reelected. He gave his vote
for, and signed the declaration of inde-
pendence with peculiar ardor. Near the
end of the year 177^ New Jersey became
the theatre of war; and, in the destruc-
tion of property which was made by the
enem^', that of Mr. Hart, as of a rebel
especially obaoxious, suffered to' a great
extent Active exertions were also made
to take him prisoner, and he was hunted
about for some time, without intennisnon*
fitortieing obfiged to fly fimn his house.

183

HART— HARTFORD.

when hv wife was afflicted by a die-
tiesBiiig maMjy which uhimately caused
her death, tie waa often in great wast
of food, and, on one occasion, was forced
to conceal hkomid^ during the night, ui a
dog-kenneL After the evacuation of New
Jeney by the ^^gl^b^ he returned to his
Ann, and began to repair the injuries it
had received; but his oonsdtution was so
much shattered by the hardships he had
encountered in his eftforts to elude the
pursuits of his foes, that it ffradually fiiiled
him ; and, hn the year 178Q, be breamed liis
last, umvemlly esteemed and respected.

Hartforb ; a dtv hi Haitford coun^,
and the aami-capkal of Connecticut, on
the west bonk of Connecticut riven 50
miles above its mouth, 34 from New
Haven, and 100 W. a W. of Boston;
ton. W W W. ; lat 4P 46^ N.: popula-
tion in 1890, including the township, 9617;
in 1890L 9789, of which the city had
7074. It has a pleasant and advanta-
geous situation at Uia head of sloop navi-
cation, and is surrounded by a ferule and
beautiful country. It contains a hand-
some state-house of stone and brick, three
banks, includmg a branch of the U.
States bank, an arsenal, an academy, a
museum, a eoUege, an asylum for the
deaf and dumb^ and eight houses of pub-
lic worship, six of theno witliin the city,
viz., three for Congregationalisis, one for
Episcopalians, one for BapticAs, and one
for Umvenalists. The city is generally
well built, particulariy the main street
A iMidge with mx arches, 974 feet ]on|[, is
erected over the Connecticut, connecting
the dtv with East Hartford. Hartford
has a nourishing commerce. It has an
ezlansive inlana trade, and a variety of
manufiictures, as leather, shoes, coaches,
cotton and woollen goods, saddlery, brass
woric, &c. The genend asseinblv has one
mmoa annuaUv, and meets altemately
at Hartford and New Haven. Hartford
was first settled by the English in 1635.
Washington college, an institution under
the direction of the Episcopalians, was
established here in 1826^ It is veiy pleas-
antlv situated, and has a president, eight
professors, about 80 students, and a li-
liraiT of 5000 volumes. The American
Asylum for the education and mstruction
of the deaf and dumb» at Hartford, owes
its origin to the success which attended
the enoris of the reverend Thomas H.
Gallaudet, to give insuruction to tlie deaf
and dumb daughter of a gentleman of that
city. The attention of people being ex-
cited, it was computed that tliera were
more than a himdred deaf mutes in Con-

necticut ; and Mr. Gallaudet was induced
to undertake the establishment of an insti-
tution at Hartford for their relief^ having
previously stipulated for means of person-
ally examining the European insatutions
for the relief of persons thus afflicted.
Mr. Gallaudet embarked for Europe in
May, 1815. He returned in August, 1816,
accompanied by Mr. Laurent Clerc, a
disdnguished pupil of the abb6 Sictud.
The course of instnicdon commenced,
with seven pupils, in April, 1817, and, in
1899, there were 143 pupils in the institu-
tion, under the care or Mr. Gallaudet and
nine assistant instructers. 54 of the pupils
were supported wholly by the legislature
of Maasachuaetts ; 15, in whole or in part,
bv that of New Hampshire; 13 by that of
Maine; 21 by that or Vermont; and 13 by
that of Connecticut The institution, from
its establishment to 1830, had imparted its
benefits to 318 persons. The funds of the
asylum have been derived fit>m private
donationd^ and fiiom a grant of land in
Alabama, made by the congress of the
U. States, in 1819. These have flunished
the institution with a large And commodi-
ous brick building, in which the pupils
reside and receive insdruction ; a dwelling-
house for the principal, and convement
out-houses, including two brick woHl-
shops, in which the nude pupils work four
or nve hours daily, in order to acquire a
mechanical trade ; and have enabled the
directors to form a permanent fund of
considerable amount The crounda (be-
tween seven and eight acres m extent) are
on a veiy deligiiuiil and commanding
eminence, half a mile west of the city.
When the asylum commenced, the chat^
to each pupil was ^200 a year for board,
kidging and washing, fiiel, candles, station-
eiT, and other incidental expenses of the
school-room ; besides a continual super-
intendence of their health, conduct, man-
ners and morals, and tuition. In eon-
sequence of the sales of a portion of
the lands in Alabama, the charge is
now reduced to $115 a ^ear— a sum,
however, which fkUs considerably short
of the actual expense incuned for each
pupil. By this mode of distributing the
annual income derived from the fimds of
the instimtion, every state in the UnLon^
and every parent of a deaf and dumb
child, may receive an equal share of tiie
public bounty. To employ their fiinda in
educating pupils ffratuitously, would soon
entirely exhaust them. One great object,
that the asylum has aimed to accomplish,
is, the difnjsioii of a unifonn system of
instruction throughout the Union, and to

HABTFORD— HARTLEY.

183

SBtiafy candid ajid uiteUigem minds, that
ezperience in teaching the deaf and dumb,
as IB aJl otlier purauitM, mechanical or in-
tellectual, is of primaiy importance. Iti
efibrtsi in this re^)ect, have met with great
Buecees. It has furnished the Pennsyl-
vama ii^tution, at Philadelphia, with its
present prindptd and two astiatant teach-
cfb; it awMdad instruction to the princi-
pals of the two institutioiui in Kentucky
and Ohio ; and the principal of the one at
Canajoharie, in the stale of New Yoik,
himself deaf and dumfa^ was one of its
eariiest pupilB. In addition to these insti-
tutionsi all of which haye derived their
system of instruction fiom the American
asylum, theie is but one odier in the
U. Btates,-~tfaat in the city of New Yoik.
Among the 318 pupils, who have been
memberB of iIIb asylum, only 75 have
been aunported by their parents or fiienda^
mosi or whom were in quite moderate
cimimstancea. Out of the same number,
conastiog of 178 males and 140 females^
134 were bom deaf; 154 lost their hearing
in in&ncy and childhood ; and of 30 no
cenain infbrmotiQn could be procured.
Araonff the causes of this calamity, were
the Imlowiztf { feven, more particulariy
ihe spotted lever; eankar rash; measles;
inflainmation of die brain ; drop^ in die
head; snail pox; hooping cough ; palsy;
ID one instance, dischsjve of cannon ; and
sudden falla In onnr two cases has
either of the parents of the pupils been
deaf and dumb ; and, in each of these, it
was the ftther ; while^ among several in-
stances of marriage diat have come to the
knowMge of those connected with the
asylum, where either one or both of the
parliBa wcte deaf and dtnnb, their chU-
dien were in poanssion of all their fiuml-
ties. The pfayriology of the deaf and
dumb is a subject of the most curious
kind, and, if thoroug^y inyesdgated, might
shed much additional light upon that of
our spades in general It would serve
very much to promote this object, if the
ele^ and the physieians, in th^ respec-
tive towns, would institute inquiries on
this subject. The result of such inquiries
eould be communicated to some of the
public eedenasdcal or medical associa-
tiMia, and ibence transmitted, free of ex-
pense, to the officers of die asylum. If a
single association would commence inqui-
ries of this kind, on some well digested,
regular plan, it would soon be more gen-
erally, and, it is to be hoped, at len^h
nnivenally, adopted. Among these m-
quiries, the following are die most hnpor-
tant: the sex, age, place of nativity and

rendence of the individual ; whedier tiie
dea&esB is owing to some original defect,
or vras produced by disease or accident,
and, if so, hi what way, and at what dme;
whether there are other cases of deafiiesB in
the same &mily, or among am^ of the an-
cestors or collateral brsnches oA3ndred,aBd
how and when moduced ; if a pait of the
children hear and speak, and a part «e deaf *
and dumb, what is the order of their
ages; whether the deafiiesi » total ot
pardal, and, if partial, what kmd of sounds
can foe heard, and to what extent; whedisr
any medical meana have been employed
to remove it, and the result; whether the
individual can utter any articulate sounds^
and to what extent; wiiether any instruc-
tion has been given, and with what auccess ;
whether the individual has been taught
any mechanical art or trade, or is engaged
in any regular occupation; if married, to
whom, to a deaf and dumb pennn, or to
one who can hear and speak, and, if there
are children, whether they are in p o s s e s
sion of their ftcuhles ; what are tne dr-
cumsrances of the faidividual, or of the
parents or fiiends, and, more particulariy,
whether diey are able to flmiisn the means
of educadon at aome institution for the deat
and dumb. With regard to the coum of
instruction pursued in the American asy-
lum, we wdl only add to what has been
already said in the article Dumb and Dettf,
that the period, for which pupils are sent
to the asylum, does not usually exceed
four years ; and, in this thne, it is expected
that thc^ will receive sufficient instruction
for all the usefhl purposes of life, and also
that amount of religious knowledge, with
which, as immortal beings it ii^ of essen-
tial importance that they should be made
acquainted. A moment*to reflection vriU
show the difficulnr of the task imposed on
the Snstructer. Other children have to
pass through a much lonaer course of
instruction, countinff fitim me time when
diey first begin to nam thefar letters, be^
fore diey acquire what is termed a com-
mon education. In the four years, how-
ever, besides being taught the prominent
facts and leading truths of the Bible, the
pupils generally acquire the ability to read
books in an easy and femiliar stvle^ and to
express their thoughts intelligibly m writ-
ing; and they make some proffress in
arithmetic, geography, the oulfines of
histoiy, orthography, and the practical
part of grammar. Hie male pupils also
acquire some mechanical art
Hartford Convention. (S^U,Sbde$,)
Hartlet, David, an English physician,
principally celebrated as a vmter on meta^

184

HARTLEY— HARTZ.

physics and monls, ytbs bom in 1705.
At the ajre of 15, he was sent to Jesus
oollece, Cambridge, of which he became
a feuow. He engaged in the study of
medicine, and pnctised as a phyracian in
Nottinghamshire, and, subsequently, in
London. When Mrs. Stephens, a female
empuic, professed to have feund out a
specific for the stone, doctor Hardey con-
tributed towaids her obtaining the grant of
£5000 from parliament for her discovery.
He spent the latter part of his hfe at Bath,
and died there, Aug. 38, 1757. His &me as
a philosopher and a man of letters depends
on hL«i work entitled Observations on Man
(1749, 2 vols., 8vo.). This treatise ezhibitB
the outlines of connected systems of physi-
ology, mental philosophy, and theolonr.
His physiology is founded on the hypoth-
esis of nervous vibrations. The doctrine
of association, which he adopted and il-
lustrated, explains many phenomena of
intellectual philosophy ; and this part of
Hartley's work was published by doctor
Priesdey, in a detached form, under the
title of the Theoiy of the Human Mind
(8VO,).

Ha&tlet, David; distinguished as a
politician and an ingenious projector. He
was for some time member of pariiament,
and uniformly displayed hberal views.
His steady opposition to the war with the
American colonies, led to his being ap-
pointed one of the plenipotentiaries to
treat with doctor Franklin, at Paris; and
some of his letters on that occasion were
published in the correspondence of that
statesman, in 1817, and are contained in
the Diplomatic Correspondence of the
American Revolution (Boston, 1831). In
the house of commons. Hartley was one
of the first promoters of the abolition of
the slave-trade. This benevolent philoso-
pher died at Bath, Dec 19, 1813» aged 84.

Ha&tshorn; the horns of the common
male deer, to which many very extraor-
dinary medicinal virtues were attributed ;
but the experience of late yeare gives no
countenance to them. The honia are of
neariy the same nature as bones, and the
preparations from them by heat are aimi-
lar to those finom solid animal substances
in general ; so that the articles denominat-
ed apirU ofharUhom and soli of hartshorn^
though formerly obtained onl^fix>m the
horns of different species of deer, are
now chiefly prepared from bonea The
former of these, which is a volatile alkali
of a veiy penetrating nature, is an effica-
cious remedy in nervous complaints and
fidnting-fits ; and salt of hartsliom has
been succewfuUy prescribed in fevera.

The scrapings or raspings of the homs^
under tiie name of kartthom shavinggj
are variously employed in medicine.
Boiled in water, the horns of deer give
out an emdlient jeUy, which is said to be
remarkably nutritive. Burned hartsliom
is employed in medicine. The horns of
the stag are used, by cuders and other me-
chanics, for the handles of knives and cut-
ting instruments of different kinds.

Hartz; the most northerly mountain
chain of Germany, fix>m which an exten-
sive plain, interrupted only by some in-
considerable hills, stretehes to the North
sea and the Baltic The Hartz, though
surrounded by a low ranse of hills, fonns
a separate mountainous diain, 70 iniles in
length and 20 to28 miles in breadth. The
Hartz, properiy speaking, conunences in the
east, in Mansfeld, passes throuffh Anhalt-
Bemburg, the counties of Stoiberg; Ho-
henstem and Wemifferode, a part of Hal-
berstadt and Blankenburg, Brunswick-
Wolfenbuttel and Grubenhagen, and ter-
minates on the west, at the town of Seesen,
comprising an extent of 1350 square miles,
and embracing 40 towns and numerous
villages^ with Ss,000 inhabitantB, belonging
principally to Hanover. The Hartz is di-
vided mto the Upper and Lower, in a dou-
ble sense. In the vrider sense, the Brock-
en, the loftiest summit of the chain, forms
the line of separation. The Upper Haitz
lies west of the Brocken, and is the most
elevated, extennve, and rich in mine-
rals ; the Lower Hartz lies on the east of
the Brocken, and is superior in the beauty
of its scenery. The same summit is alsa
the dividing point of the riven ; those on
the east empty into the Elbe ; those cm the
west, into the Weser. There are several
ranges of mountains in Germany, that are
much hufher than the Hartz ; as, for in*
stance, the German Alps, the Riesenge-
birge and the Schwartzwald (Bkck Forest)^
The Brocken, the highest summit of die
Hartz, is 3489, or, according to some ac-
counts, 3435 feet hiffh ; next to this are
the Brachberg (2755 teet), tiie Wormbeiig^
(9667 feet), and die AckermannsbShe
(2605 feet). That part of the Hartz which
includes tne Brocken, with the neighbor-
uighigh summits, coneists entirely of gran-
ite ; then come the hiUs of the second
rank, formed ofgreywacke, in which the
ores are chiefly found ; at their foot lie the
FloBtz hills, knovm under the name of the
Vorkartz. The climate, particularly of the
Upper Hartz, is cold. The frost contin-
ues till the end of May, and appean earfy
in September, accompanied by snow ; and
even m June, night frosts aro not uncom-

HARTZ-HARVEY.

186

nMuu The warm weather bflcs only aboitt
six weeks, and the boow upon the hi^^hest
peaks seldom disappears before June;
firea are kept up, even in mid-summer.
The Hartz is wooded throughout, even to
the top of the Brocken (the Hanoverian
part alone contains 286,a^ acres of forest).
On the Brocken itself stand fin dwindled
into dwaif trees. Upon the leas lofty
hiU^ serenU sorts of deciduous Urees are
found intenningled with the everneens,
and the Fkstz hills are covered with the
finest oaks, beech and birch. The hills
ako abound in wild berries, in trufifles and
mushrooms. In medicinal plants, Ice-
land moss, and fine pastures ; andin sum-
mer, immense heids of neat cattle, sheep,
goats and horses graze here. In the Up-
per Hartz, little grain is raised, except
oatB ; in the Lower Hartz, the productions
are more various. The woods fiimisli a
great quantity of game, such as stags,
roe-bucKS^ foxes, wild boars, wild cats, &c.
But the wealth of the Hartz consists in its
forests and valuable mines. The latter
furnish some gold (on account of its rarity,
ducats wertf formerly codned, with die in-
sciipdon Ex maro tiemfnuz) ; in the Ram-
mefe-beige, great quantities of silver, iron,
lead, copper, zinc, arsenic, manganese,
vitriol, granite, porphyiy, slate, marble,
alabaster, d&c The gross produce of the
Hanoverian mines is but little over the ex-
penses; but they support the greatest pan
of the inhabitants of the Hartz. The
towns of the Upper Hartz are entirely
open. In addition to the establishments
for canying on the mines, the oUects of
curiosity in the Hartz are the Brocken,
with its prospect ; the hoise-track (.Rm«-
trmH)f the wildest and most beautiful port
of ttie Hartz, near the village of Thale ;
the difiSarent caves, as those of Baumann,
Biely Schwartz&ld, the romantic Selken-
thal, with the Maiden's Leap, and the
Bath of Alexis ; the wild Ockerthid^ &c.
A wide plain on the summit of the
Brocken, is the place of the annual ren-
dezvous of all the witches and spirits of
Germany, of which Q6the has made such
a noble use in his Ihuut It is on the
Brocken, also, that the wild huntsman of
the Hartz is supposed to dwell. The
spectre of tfie Brocken is aa image of the
spectator, of a magnified and distorted
Hume, reflected fiiom an opposite cloud
uncter particular drcumstances. (See the
7\uchmlnich f&r Rtisende in den Hartz,
byOottschalk (3d edit., Marburg, 1817).
Habuspex. (See ,^tnumces.]
Harvard Colleoi:. (See Cambridge.)
Hakvet, William^ an English physi-
16*

cian, celebrated as the discoverer of the
circulation of the blood, was bom at Folk-
stone, m Kent, April 2, 1578, and, in 1598,
removed to Caius collese, Cambridge. At
the age of 19, he went idiroad for improve-
ment, and, after visituig France and Ger-
many, he staid some time at the univer-
sity at Padua, where Fabricius ab Acqua-
pendente, and other eminent men, were
professors of the medical sciences. He
took the degree of M. D. in 160S, and,
returning to En^^d. obtained a similar
distinction at Cambridge. Having settled
in London, in 1604 he was admitted a li-
centiate of the college of physicians, and,
three years after, a fellow. In 1615, he
was appointed to read lectures at the col-
lege, on anatomy and sui|pery ; and, in the
course of this undertaking, be developed
the discovery which has immortalized his
name. It was not tiU 1630, that he save
publicity to his new doctrine of the c&cu-
latiou of blood, bjr his treatise entitled
ExereUaiio anaiomtiea de Mata Cordis d
Sangvimsin AmmaKbuB. In a prefixed
address to the coUege of physicians, he
observes, that he htul fiequently, in his
anatomical lectures, declared his opinion
concerning the motion of the heart and
the circuliuion of the blood, and had, for
more than nine yean, confirmed and illus-
trated it by reasons and arguments ground-
ed on ocular demonstration. It speedily
excited the attention of anatomists m eve-
lY European school of medicine ; and the
theorv of Harvey' having been triumphant-
ly defended against all ixijections, attempts
were made to invalidate his claiin to the
discovery; but it is now admitted, that
whatever hints may be found in the writ-
ings of his predecessors, Harvey first clear-
ly demonstrated the system of sanguine-
ous circulation, and thus produced one of
the greatest revolutions in medical sci-
ence. Harvey was appointed physician
extraordinary to James I, and, in 1632,
physician in ordinary to king Charies, by
whom he was much esteemed. Adhering
to the court party, on the occurrence or
hostihties, he attended his majesty on his
removal from London. He was with him
at the batde of Edgehill, and afterwarcb
at Oxford, where, in 1642, he was incor-
porated M. D. In 1651, he published his
Jjxercitatiimei de GeneraHone AmmaUum
(4to.). This curious woik would have been
still more interesting, had not the plunder
of the author's museum, while he was in
the king's service, deprived him of the
fruits of some of his anatomical research-
es, especially those relative to the flenera-
tion of insects. He presented to uie c>il-

186

HARVEY— HASENCLEVER.

lege of i^hyBiciaiis his patenial estate of
£56 a year, for the iustitution of an annu-
al festival and other purposes. In his (dd
age, he was subject to distressing attacks
of the gout, which imbittered his exist-
ence so much, that he is said to have
shortened his life with, a dose of opium.
He died June 3, 1658^ A splendid edition
of his works was published m one volume,
4to., with an account of his life, by doctor
Lawrence.

Harwich ; a seaport of England, on a
peninsular point or land on die Essex
coast It 18 the port from which the
packets sail regularly, in time of peace,
tor Holland aiMl Grermany ; the seat of a
navy-yard, and also a considerable batlung
place. Two light-houses have lately been
erected on the Harwich side, to faciUtate
the entrance by night The harbor is of
great extent, and forms, united to the bay,
a roadstead for the largest ships of war,
and for an immense number of vesseb at
a time, upwards of 300 sail having an-
chored here with ease. Harwich sends
two members to mrliament Population,
4010 ; 71 miles N. E. London ; Ion. P
17' E.; lat5P57'N.

Hasorubai.; the name of several distin-
guished Cartha^nians ; among others, of
Uie brother of Hannibal, (q. v.)

Hasb, Charles Benedict, professor of
the Oriental languages at Paris, and, since
1834, member of the academy of inscrip-
tions, bom May 11, 1780, at Suiza, near
Naumburg, studied at Weimar, under
Bottiger. The eloquence and leaminsr
of that distinguished scholar attracted
bun to philoloffical studic^ to which he
applied himself during his residence in
Jena and Helmstiidt In 1801, he went
to Paris, where Millin and Villoison intro-
duced the young German Hellenist into
their literary circle. By Villoison, Hase
was introduced to the acquaintauce of
Choiseul Grouffier, who, on the deadi of
Villoison (1805). intrusted to him the pub-
lication of John Laur. Lydus's ti'catLse
De Magishraiibus Romanorwru For this
publicatiou Hase only wrote the uitroduc-
tion, the translation being by Fuss. At
the same time, he began a catalogue of
the cl&ssical manuscripts, which the suc-
cessss of die French arms at that time
brought from all quarters to Paris; but sub-
sequent circumstances prevented its ap-
|)earance. These researches carried liim
into the Byzantine literature, as appears
by his JSTotices du TrcdU de Draam de
Stndomc^e sur la Mitrique des Anciena ;
also, De VHxatoin de LtonAe-Diacre ; and
the EnlreHem de VEmpertvar Manud Pa-

Uologue avee un Professeur Mc^mHaitf
in tiie eighth volume of die Nbiices et Ex-
iraiia dela BUbL L R. By his mtercouree
wid) Crreeks in Paris, he acquired so thor-
ou^ a knowledge of the modem Greek,
that, in 1816, he vras appointed professor
of that language in the school for the liv-
ing Oriental languages. This study led
him, imperceptimy, to the times where its
first traces are discernible— times not vexy
remote from the clasacal. The style or
the thurch fathers, and the Byzantine wri-
ters, gave him a further insight into the
nature of an idiom which had been neg-
lected by most scholars, while, at the same
time, the idiom itself furnished him iOus-
trations of the Byzantine writers. The
continuation of the Corpus SKsL Byz, was
the chief object of his researehes. Tlarou^
the patronage of the Russian imperial
chancellor, count Romanzofi^ Hase was
enabled to publish his Leo Diaeonua, and
some authors of the same period, forming^
a continuation of the Paris edition of the
Byzantines (Paris, 1819). The explana-
toiy and critical commentary, accompany-
ing the text, is veiy valiuibfe. He has
since prepared for the press a similar
volume, containing PseUus, and some
chronographers, in the preparation of
which he examined, with peat care, the
French and Itahan libraries. Besides
these, he has collected all the fragments
which have any relation to the religious
opinions of the Romans. In two joume}is
to Italy, under the patronage of the French
government, in 18^ and 1821, he became
acquainted with the treasures of Italian li-
braries. His Laur, L^dus de (hterdU^ qutt
9\qtersunt^ appeared at Paris in 1823, with
an introduction, commentary and a Latin
version. He is at present editing an edition
of Stephens's Thescaxnu IMu Orac.

Hasenclever, Peter, a distinguished
mercliant, was bom at Remscheid, in the
duchy of Berg, in 1716. In 1748, be es-
tablished himself at Lisbon, and afterwards
at Cadiz, whence he returned to Grerma-
ny, and had a great influence in promot-
ing tlie manufacture of linen in Silesia.
Frederic the Great used to ask his ad-
vice in important commereial affairs. In
1761, he returned to Cadiz, and, though a
Protestant, was the intimate friend of Ve-
lasquez, die grand inquiator. He after-
wards estabMied a company in London,
for cxportinff hemp, potash and iron to
North Amenca, which was connected, in
17G5, with a houso at New York, where
lie built a great many vessels. The spec-
ulatioiis of his parmer having caused the
bankruptcy of die finn^ he went to Eu-

HASENCLEVER-HASSEL.

187

rope, but soon after returned to America.
He then settled in Laudshut in Silesia,
where he carried on an important linen
trade. He died there in 1798.

Haser, Charlotte Henrietta, a celebrated
smger, bom at Leipsic, in 1789, daughter
•f the director of music in the univenaty
of Leipsic. In 1804, ehe was engaged at
the Italian opera at Ihiesden. in 1807,
she went through Prague and Vienna to
Italy. Her fine voice, ner execution, and
her peraeyering eflfbrts to combine the
advantages of the Italian and German
methods^ gave her a brilliant success. In
private life, she was distinguished for the
correctness of her morals, and her uncom-
mon modesty. The most celebrated the-
atres in Italy contended for her. She was
repeatedly called to Rome, where she ob-
tamed great applause. She was the first
female singer in Italy who appeared in
male charactera, and venturea to cope
with the celebrated artists Crescentini,
Yeluti, &c In Naples, she was engaged
at the theatre of San Carlo for a year, and
was oonunonlv known by the name of
La Diema Tedesetu She afterwards mar-
ried Vera, a respectable advocate in
Rome, and now displays her splendid
talents only among a select circle of
fiiends.

Hasse, John Adolphus, chiq)el-master
of Augustus, king of Poland and elector
of Sirxony, one of the most eminent jnu-
sical composers of the 18th century, was
bom at Bergedorf, near Hamburg (1699).
His extraordinary talents were soon ob-
served by Konie, afterwards poet laureate
to tlie king of Poland, who recommended
him as tenor singer for the Hamburg ope-
ra, where tlie celebrated Kaiser was then
composer. His masterpieces served as
models for Hoase, who, in the course of
four years, became distinguished as a mu-
sician and sin|;er. He brought out his
first opera, Mtigonas, which was received
with ereat applause, in 1723. To perfect
himself in counterpoint, be determin-
ed to study in one of the celebrated Ital-
ian schoob. In 1724, he went to Italy,
and studied at Naples under Porpora*
Scarlatti was so pleased with his talents
and modesty, that he voluntarily offered
him his instmction, and called him his
SOIL An opera which he set to music for
the theatre royal, was the foundation of
liis reputation, and procured him from tlie
Italians the title or H earo iSSoMone. All
tiie theatres of Ital^ contended for die
hcMior of having him as leader of the
orchestra. He went to Venice, in 1727,
where his future wife, Faustina Bordoni,

was at that time ui the bloom of her
beauty, and the object of universal admi-
ration. Having once heard Hasse phy
upon the harpsichord, she immediately
fell m love with him. He was here ap-
pointed chapel-master in the amserwUcrio
degU matralnii His reputation now pro-
cured him the situation of chapel-master
at Dresden^ with a yeariy salaiy of $9000
for himseu and wife ; but as he was press-
ed to remain in Italy, he divided his time,
until 1740,between the twocountries. After
repeated invitations, he went to E^fland, in
17^ where he was received with great
distinction, and his opera Arkaenu met
with the highest applause. He soon,
however, returned to Dresden. He went^
in 1763, to Vienna, where he composed
his last opera, Rumaro^ and final^ re-
moved to Venice (1770), in which city he
died, in 178a Hasse is deservedly cele-
brated as the most natural, elegant and ju-
dicious composer of his time. He always
regarded the voice as the chief object of
attention, and, widiout being ignorant of
harmony, he made the instrumental ac-
compamment as simple as possible. A
pupu of Leo, Vinci, Peri^lese and Porpo-
ra, he was contented with being simple
and natural. His compositions are so nu-
merous, that he himself said, there were
many which he should not recoj^nise. He
set all the operas of Metasuisio, except
Themistocles, and most of them twice or
oftener. His sacred compositions (masses,
Te Deums, &c.), are still favorites at Dres-
den, where the greatest collection of them
is to be found. His wife, Faustina Bor-
doni, bom at Venice (1700), was one of
the most celebrated and beautiful singers
of the 18th century. She made her J^nd
on the stage of her native city, in her 16th
year ; and, wherever she was heard, she
was called the tiuKJemSJiren. Medals were
struck in honor of her at Florence. The
effect of her musical talents was increased
by her beauty. In 1^, she received an
appointment of 15,000 florins at Vienna.
In Dresden, where she was married to
Hasse, she sang for the first time in 1731,
and was ever after the fiiithful companion
of her husband.

Hassel, John George Henry, a distin-
guished German f^eographerand statistical
writer, was bom m 1770, at Wolfenbiittel,.
in Bmnswick, and died Jan. 18, 1829, at
Weimar. He was, fifom 1809 ta 1813, di-
rector of the statistical bureau, &C., in
Cassel, then the ciupital of the kingdom
of WesmhalJa. After 1816, he tived a
private life at Weimar. He wrote many
works of much reputation ; among others,.

188

HASSEL-^HASTINGS.

GeDeral Geographico-Statiftical Lexicon
(3vob^ Weimar, 1817 and 1818); Statis-
tical Sketch of all the European States,
and the moet important of the other Parts
of the Worid (3 numben, Wehnar, 1823
and 1891) ; Uenealogical-Statistical-Ifis-
torical Ahnanae (annually, from 1824 to
1829, W«mar)— <a work which contains
▼erv extensive statistical infonnation. It
will be continued by doctor l>ede,who
edited die number for 1830. Hassel was
coeditor of the Complete Manual of the
latest Geography (Wehnar, 1819 to 1829),
and, In connexion with W. MAller, edited
the aeeood chief division of the Encyclo-
psBdia of ErMh and Grvber, from H to
O, and contributed largely to Pierer's En-
cyclopflddic Dictionary (Altenburg, 1824
to 1828), from A to K.

HA98BLqui8T, Ffoderic, a Swedish
naturalist, was one of the most eminent
among the disciples of Lmnnus. He was
bom In the province of Ostrogothia, in
1722. The death of his ftther, who was
vicar of a pertoh, leaving him without the
means of support, he exerted his ftcuhies,
and obtsinea fHends. by whose assistance
he was supptied with the means of in-
struction, jm 1741, he went to the uni-
versity of Upsal, where his talents and in-
dustry drew the attention of lionsBus. In
1747, he pubhslied a dissertation De Vtri-
hui PkaUamm. Soon after, he formed
the scheme of making researches, <»i the
spot, into the natural histoiy of Palestine ;
and the university having ftmrished him
with pecuniary resources, he embarked
for Smvma in Ausust, 1749, and arrived
there about the end of November. After
exfJoring the environs of that dty, he
went to Egypt, whence, in March, 1751,
he took the route to Palestine, b^ l)amiet-
ta and Jafb. He staid some time at Je-
rusalem, and afterwards visited other parts
of the countiy. Retuming to Smyrna, he
brought vrith him a most noble collection
of punts, minerals, fishes, reptiles, insects,
and other natural curiosities. He died
there, Feb. 9, 1752. The Swedish aueen.
Louisa Ulrica, purchased the wlxJe ojr
IIaaBelquisl*s inquisitions, which were de-
posited in die casde of Drottnin^olm.
Linnaeus, fi!om the papers and spedmens
of natural history collected bv lus pupil,
prepared for the press the Iter jPakuftnum,
or Travels in Palestine, with Remarks on its
Natural History (Stockhobn, 1757, Bvo.),
which has been translated into English
and other European languages.

Hastiicos ; an ancient borough and
maiket-town of England, on the eastern
extremity of Sussex, fiunous for being the

place near vdiich William the Conqueror
landed in Endand, and for the bottle of
Hastings, fougnt in the neighborhood. It
•is now in neat repute fbr sea-bathing. It
is one of the C^que Ports. Its situ-
ation is beautifiil ; and the environs also
abound vrith picturesque scenery and de-
hgfatftil vralks and rides. A walk, called
t^ surtnf |»arr«le, has been Ibrmedonthe
west of the town. The public buiklingB
are, two very ancient churches ; the town
hall, buih in 1823, vrith the market-place
tmder it; the custom-house, and two ex-
cellent ftee schools. The lemains of an
ancient castle are sliD to be seen. Two
miles ftom the town is the stone on which
William is said to have dined when he
landed here ; it is called the etmmwrw's
gUme, Hastiiigs sends two memDers to
periiameut. Population, 8000 ; 86 miles
S. E. Tunbridjre.

Hastings, WarreiLwas bom in 1732 or
17^ at the village of Churchill, in Oxford-
shire, where his lather was clermnan of the
parish. He was educated at Westminster
school, and, in 175^ went out to Bengal
as a vmter in the East India c<mipany'8
service. After having filled some of the
{Htncipal offices under the British govern-
ment, and made himself acquainted with
Oriental literature and pubhc affiiirs, he
returned to England in 1765» vrith a inod-
erate fortune. In 1788, he received the
appointment of second in council at Ma-
dras ; and, in 1771, he wbb removed to
Bengal, to the presidency of which he was
raised the foUovring year. In 1773, he
was appointed governor-general of India.
He held this situation for 13 years, during
which he had to encounter many serious
difficuhies, increased and strengthened
the power of the company at the expense
of tne native jnrinces, and, undoubtedly,
vnuB guilty of much c^ypression and injus-
tice to attain this end. He nosed the rev-
enue of the company from 3,000^000 to
£5^000/)00 steriin^ On the removal of
lord North from office, in 17S2; his oppo-
nents exerted themselves to displace tnose
on whom he had conferred fq^pomtments.
Upon the motion of Dundas^ Hastings
was recalled m 1785, and immediatery
loaded vrith accusations. The most prom-
inent orators of the ojqwntion, Fox,
Buike, Sheridan and others, were arrayed
against him. He was accused of having
governed, in the East Indies, arbitrarily
and tyrannically ; of having extorted im-
mense sums of money ; of having accom-
plished the ruin of many princes ; in short,
of having exercised oppression of every
description. Feb. 17, 1786; Burke laid the

hastings-hatton;

charges against bim before the lower
house, which were carried, in May, 1787,
into the upper ; and the tnal conunenced
Feb. 13, 17B6. The solemnity of the pro-
ceedings in a case of this nature, and the
conseauent slowness with which they were
canied on, together with numerous inter-
ruptions, retarded the final decision. Ma*
ny of the pmnts of accusation required an
accurate examination of the state of affiirs
in the East Indies^ and witnesses had to
be sununoned thence to London. The
speeches of the accusers often occupied
several days ; and, April 15, 1794, the up-
per house held its one hundred and twen-
tieth session, for the purpose of coming to
a final decision. The public opimon,
which had, in the beginning, preponderat-
ed in fiivor of the accusers, now declared
itself unanimously for the defendant; and
the return of lord Comwallis fiom India
was decisiye in his favor. April 13, 17^
Hastings was acquitted, and sentenced to
pay oiuvthe costs of prosecution ^£71,060
sterling) ; the crown itself had, besides this,
incurred an expense of £100,000 sterling.
The East India company indenmified him
bjrapension of £AOOO for 28 yean, paid
lum £42,000 of the amount in advance,
and made him a loan of £50,000. The
salary or pension was afterwards settled
on bun for life. He was made a member
of the privy cotmcil; but he interested
himself little in public affiurs; and died
Aug. 32, 1818. He published some pieces
relrang to India, siid speeches and pa-
pers in defence of his conduct

Hastinos, Fnnds, marquis of Hast-
ings, eari of Rawdon, &C., was the son of
John, baron Rawdon and earl of Moira,
of die kinsdom of Ireland, and was bom
Dec 7, 1754. He was educated at Ox-
ford ; andf after a short tour on the conti-
nent, he entered the army in 1771, as on
enagn in the 15th regiment of foot Hav-
ing obtained a lieutenancy, he embarked
for America, in 1773, and was present
at the battle of Bunker's hill. After hav-
ing served in other engagements, he was
nominated, in 1778, adjutant-general of
the British army in America, with the
rank of lieutenant-